Osteochondrosis: What the Research Says
Evidence from 37 peer-reviewed studies
4 Systematic Review
1 RCT
16 Cohort Study
9 Case Report
7 Expert Opinion
What Professionals Should Know
- •Breeders of Bardigiano and Haflinger horses should monitor inbreeding levels closely and consider outcrossing strategies, as these breeds show higher inbreeding coefficients that may limit genetic diversity.
- •Maremmano, Murgese, and Italian Heavy Draught Horse breeds maintain broader genetic diversity and may serve as valuable genetic resources for improving other native breeds while maintaining health and morphological traits.
- •Understanding selection signatures linked to osteochondrosis and hoof health can guide targeted breeding decisions to maintain disease resistance while preserving breed characteristics.
- •Genetic predisposition to osteochondrosis and fetlock fragments is documented but complex; breeding decisions should consider both genetic and environmental management factors rather than genetics alone
- •Current genomic testing limitations mean that precise, consistent clinical phenotyping and detailed lesion characterization at the individual level remains critical for effective management and breeding decisions
- •Collaboration across stud books and standardized recording of osteochondral lesions in breeding populations would enable faster progress in identifying and selecting against genetically susceptible animals
- •Management strategies should address multiple environmental risk factors simultaneously (exercise regimens, nutrition, growth rates, anatomic considerations) rather than single-factor interventions, as osteochondral disorders result from complex interactions
- •Early intervention during foetal programming and growth phases may be critical; monitor mares during pregnancy and implement evidence-based management for young horses to minimize osteochondral disease risk
- •Work with veterinarians and nutritionists to optimize feeding programs and exercise protocols tailored to individual conformation and growth patterns, as these factors significantly influence fetlock osteochondral fragment development
- •Radiography remains the standard for pre-purchase osteochondrosis screening; ultrasound cannot yet replace it based on available evidence
- •While ultrasound may have potential for cartilage assessment, practitioners should not rely on it as a sole diagnostic tool for osteochondrosis without additional imaging confirmation
- •More rigorous comparative studies with standardized protocols are needed before ultrasound can be recommended as a validated alternative to traditional diagnostic methods
- •Feeding concentrates (barley) to late-pregnancy mares improves dam body condition but may increase osteochondrosis risk in foals—consider weighing maternal nutrition needs against potential joint cartilage lesion development in offspring.
- •Neonatal metabolic and bone markers in concentrate-fed mares' foals normalize by weaning, suggesting early life effects are transient rather than permanent programming changes.
- •Forage-only feeding in late pregnancy resulted in poor maternal condition (<2.5 BCS) and 7% lower bodyweight, indicating balanced nutrition is important; purely forage-based late pregnancy feeding may be inadequate for broodmare maintenance.
- •Young horses with more upright foot conformation (steeper hoof-pastern angles) and increased palmar angles of the distal phalanx may warrant closer radiographic screening for osteochondral fragments, particularly at the proximal phalanx
- •Taller horses and those with larger cannon bone diameter appear at higher risk for osteochondral fragments—consider this when selecting breeding stock or assessing lameness risk in young prospects
- •While conformation assessment shows promise for identifying at-risk individuals, relying on radiographic screening rather than conformation alone remains prudent, as single traits have limited predictive power
- •Radiographic interpretation of young horses (12-36 months) requires awareness that OC/OCD lesions are dynamic; lesions may appear, disappear, or change, so timing and serial radiographs are important for accurate diagnosis and prognosis
- •A single radiographic examination may miss developing lesions or fail to detect lesions that have self-resolved, supporting the value of repeat imaging when clinical signs persist or for breeding/purchasing decisions
- •Management decisions in young sport horses should account for the possibility of lesion evolution; discuss with owners that some lesions may not be permanent and serial monitoring may be warranted before making irreversible decisions about training or career
- •Over half of Lusitano horses examined show radiographic evidence of OC(D); screening young animals (1-12 years) should be considered routine before purchase or training intensification
- •Tarsocrural joint involvement predominates in this breed—focus radiographic examination here first and be alert for bilateral lesions, as contralateral joints show positive correlation
- •While prevalence matches Spanish Purebred horses, Lusitanos show less fragmentation, suggesting potentially better long-term prognosis and less need for surgical intervention in many cases
- •Belgian Warmblood breeders should be aware that osteochondrosis affects nearly one in three horses in the breed, making genetic testing for identified variants a potential breeding tool once validated
- •The identification of chondrocyte development pathways suggests that nutritional and developmental management during growth periods may interact with genetic predisposition to influence disease expression
- •Veterinary screening recommendations should consider Belgian Warmblood genetic risk factors, though further validation studies are needed before implementing SNP-based selection in breeding programs
- •Early surgical treatment of OC does not prevent long-term career reduction; affected horses should be counselled on expectation of shorter racing longevity and fewer opportunities to earn
- •Lesions at the distal intermediate ridge of tibia and lateral trochlear ridge of talus carry worse prognosis for racing performance—consider these locations when evaluating surgical candidates
- •Trotters appear genetically or biomechanically predisposed to OC; breeding programs should incorporate this risk when selecting trotting bloodlines
- •Neonatal foals have naturally asymmetrical and variable hoof loading patterns that normalize gradually over the first 6 months—interventions should account for this normal developmental process
- •The shift toward lateral-side and heel-preferential loading occurs naturally in healthy foals; farriers should monitor but avoid over-correcting in early life
- •Subclinical osteochondrosis did not alter dynamic hoof balance parameters, suggesting early pressure pattern changes are independent of OC status
- •Routine ultrasonographic screening of foals at 1-6 months of age can identify early osteochondrosis before it becomes a career-ending lesion
- •Early detection enables conservative management strategies that may improve long-term outcomes compared to surgical intervention in advanced cases
- •Ultrasound is a practical field screening tool that does not require specialized facilities, making it suitable for farm-based surveillance of at-risk foals
- •Mare body condition at breeding significantly influences foal metabolic health and orthopaedic disease risk; maintain BCS ≤4 at insemination to reduce osteochondrosis risk in offspring
- •Foals from obese mares warrant closer monitoring for metabolic and inflammatory markers during the first 6 months of life and orthopaedic examinations at 12 months
- •Pre-conception mare nutrition and weight management programs may reduce developmental orthopaedic disease incidence in the resulting foal crop
- •Foals recovering from systemic bacterial infections before 6 months of age should be monitored closely for osteochondral lesions in fetlock and hock joints during pre-purchase or pre-racing screening
- •Joint fragments in young Standardbreds may originate from early-life infections rather than purely genetic osteochondrosis, suggesting infection history is relevant to prognosis and management
- •Understanding that bacteria can disrupt blood supply to growth cartilage helps explain why some infection-affected foals develop skeletal complications months later
- •Pregnant mare nutrition directly impacts foal health and development for years after birth—optimizing gestation diet reduces later metabolic and orthopedic problems
- •High-concentrate feeding during pregnancy combined with overfeeding growing horses compounds risk of osteochondrosis and metabolic dysfunction; avoid double exposure
- •Yearling and two-year-old management matters more for colts from mares fed high-concentrate diets; these individuals may need stricter nutrition controls to prevent developmental disease
- •Ultrasonography can be used as a practical field-based screening method to detect early osteochondrosis in foals before clinical signs develop, enabling timely intervention
- •Early detection via ultrasound allows optimization of intrinsic healing by implementing management changes before lesions become advanced
- •This non-invasive imaging approach is more field-practical than MRI or CT for routine foal joint health screening
- •Young foals with osteochondrosis may have detectable changes in force loading patterns measurable by pressure plate analysis before lameness becomes clinically obvious—early detection tools could inform management decisions.
- •Normal gait development in foals continues well into the second half of their first year; expectations for consistent, mature gait mechanics should be adjusted accordingly during early training.
- •Pressure plate analysis may be useful for identifying subclinical loading asymmetries in osteochondrosis-affected foals that could guide therapeutic intervention or training modification.
- •Osteochondrosis in Thoroughbreds is only partially heritable; breeding decisions should account for the substantial non-genetic environmental and nutritional factors contributing to disease
- •Management of pregnant mares and young yearlings should focus on nutrition, conformation assessment, and trauma prevention since maternal and environmental effects significantly influence lesion development
- •Radiographic screening of yearlings in high-risk joints (stifle, hock, fetlock) can identify affected animals early, allowing for targeted management before athletic training begins
- •Evaluate your foal housing surfaces and design to minimize excessive limb sliding during standing up, as slippery conditions may increase cartilage injury risk
- •Consider how your facility's flooring affects weight distribution and peak pressures on developing joints in young foals
- •Housing conditions that reduce abnormal limb mechanics during normal behaviors may help lower osteochondrosis occurrence in your breeding program
- •Maternal copper supplementation via injection in late gestation does not appear to prevent early cartilage abnormalities detectable at 160 days of age, questioning the protective effect previously suggested
- •Routine Cu supplementation of pregnant mares may not be justified as a strategy to prevent osteochondrosis development in foals based on current evidence
- •Minor histological changes in cartilage from clinically normal foals may represent dynamic processes; further longitudinal studies are needed to determine which lesions resolve spontaneously versus progress to clinical disease
- •Copper supplementation during pregnancy is unlikely to prevent osteochondrosis development in foals based on this evidence
- •Foals born with adequate or high copper status appear to have better natural healing capacity for early osteochondrotic lesions during the first year of life
- •Focus on other management factors beyond maternal copper status when addressing osteochondrosis risk in breeding programs
- •Osteochondrosis in the central and third tarsal bones is common in young foals and is primarily driven by vascular failure during critical development windows (before 150 days of age).
- •Understanding the natural progression of ossification and cartilage canal regression in these bones helps distinguish between pathological lesions and normal developmental variations.
- •Early radiological detection of incomplete ossification or focal defects in young foals warrants investigation, as they may represent clinically significant osteochondrosis lesions that could impact soundness.
- •TMJ swelling detected at weaning or shortly after should be investigated promptly with imaging, as early osteoarthritis can develop and progress rapidly in young horses
- •Developmental orthopaedic disease may manifest as multi-joint involvement; thorough radiographic screening of multiple joints is warranted when one joint shows osteochondrosis-like lesions
- •Early recognition of progressive TMJ disease is critical for assessing performance prognosis and making management decisions, as severe cases may have poor long-term outcomes
- •Subchondral radiolucencies in juvenile Thoroughbred fetlocks may result from repetitive microtrauma rather than developmental osteochondrosis alone—consider management strategies that reduce concussive loading in young horses
- •Clinical detection of MFC lesions should focus on younger foals (<7 months), where lesions are more likely to have axial location and may be easier to identify on imaging
- •The presence of fibrin and fibroplasia in most lesions indicates an acute-to-chronic disease process; early intervention targeting inflammation and mechanical unloading may improve outcomes
- •Foals recovering from septic arthritis or osteomyelitis may develop osteochondral lesions that are indistinguishable from hereditary OCD but are acquired rather than genetic in origin—careful monitoring of joint health post-infection is warranted
- •Sepsis-induced OCD lesions should not automatically be considered heritable defects; breeding decisions for affected horses should account for the infectious origin of the lesions
- •Early recognition and aggressive treatment of septic arthritis/osteomyelitis in foals may help prevent secondary osteochondral damage through vascular disruption in growth cartilage
- •Cervical stenotic myelopathy involves complex skeletal pathology beyond simple compression; early recognition through imaging may help identify predisposed horses before clinical signs develop.
- •The presence of developmental lesions (osteochondrosis, bone cysts) suggests this condition has roots in growth disturbances, potentially influenced by genetics, nutrition, or growth rate—management of young stock may be preventative.
- •MRI findings of articular process lesions carry diagnostic and prognostic significance even when they don't directly compress the spinal cord.
- •Understanding that osteochondrosis cyst formation follows two pathways (pseudocyst vs. true cyst) may help explain variable progression rates and clinical outcomes in affected horses.
- •Early detection of ischemic cartilage lesions in young horses (even as young as 48 days) is important, as these lesions have the potential to progress to subchondral cysts.
- •The depth and anatomical location of the initial blood supply failure determines whether cyst formation occurs, which may inform prognostic assessment and treatment timing decisions.
- •Osteochondrosis in the metatarsophalangeal joint may develop through the same vascular mechanism as in the tarsus, suggesting the condition warrants similar clinical attention and monitoring in young foals
- •Early detection of osteochondral changes may require histological examination as macroscopic lesions may not be visibly apparent during the developmental window
- •Understanding that cartilage ischaemia may play a role in osteochondral fragmentation could inform preventive strategies during the critical growth phase in foals
- •OC in tarsal regions may originate from vascular failure in cartilage canals during the critical period when vessels cross the ossification front—understanding this timing helps explain why certain foals develop clinical OC lesions
- •Breeding decisions should consider that offspring from parents with OC show demonstrable vascular pathology in growth cartilage, supporting selection against OC-prone bloodlines
- •Early detection methods targeting vascular integrity in growth cartilage (0–7 weeks age) may eventually help identify at-risk foals before macroscopic OC lesions develop
- •Understanding cathepsin involvement in normal skeletal development provides insight into failure mechanisms in osteochondrosis and other developmental orthopaedic diseases
- •Age-specific patterns of enzyme activity suggest different therapeutic targets may be relevant at different developmental stages
- •This research establishes a biochemical basis for investigating why certain developmental periods carry higher risk for bone formation disorders
- •Understanding the vascular anatomy of growth cartilage in foals helps explain why osteochondrosis develops in specific locations with poor blood supply
- •Bacterial colonization at the distal tips of end arteries explains how infections compromise cartilage integrity in young horses
- •Future research on physis perfusion patterns may lead to better prevention and treatment strategies for growth-related lameness
- •Genetic predisposition to osteochondrosis varies significantly by breed; breeding selection based on identified genetic markers may help reduce disease incidence in high-risk populations
- •The LCORL gene region on ECA3 represents a validated genetic risk marker for hock-OCD and could be incorporated into genetic testing panels for breeding decisions
- •Understanding breed-specific heritabilities helps practitioners set realistic expectations for OC prevention through management versus genetics in different horse populations
- •Understanding that OCD stems from vascular compromise during growth helps explain why some young horses develop lesions—vascular insufficiency is the fundamental issue, not just trauma or biomechanics alone.
- •Not all osteochondrosis lesions progress to clinical disease; some resolve spontaneously, so imaging findings must be correlated with clinical signs before deciding on intervention.
- •Future management strategies should focus on identifying and modifying risk factors related to vascular development and heritable predisposition rather than only treating symptomatic lesions after they form.
- •Bog spavin occurs in approximately 1 in 10 Clydesdale horses and warrants increased owner awareness campaigns regarding its significance
- •Owner education is needed to improve understanding of tarsocrural effusion implications and appropriate investigation/treatment protocols
- •Practitioners should be prepared to explain the relationship between bog spavin and osteochondrosis to Clydesdale owners seeking guidance
- •Osteochondrosis in the distal femur of foals may develop through the same vascular mechanism as in the tarsus, suggesting management strategies targeting vascular vulnerability during growth may be relevant to multiple sites
- •The persistence of cartilage canal vascularization to 7 weeks indicates a prolonged period of potential vulnerability during early foal development when osteochondrosis lesions may initiate
- •Understanding that vessels traverse the ossification front at both perichondrial and subchondral levels helps explain how vascular disruption could lead to focal cartilage necrosis and osteochondrosis lesion formation
- •Focus on selecting breeding stock for favorable conformation and genetic background, as these are the most evidence-supported modifiable factors in osteochondrosis prevention
- •Understand that rapid growth and dietary factors, while commonly blamed, lack strong scientific support as primary causes—maintaining good basic nutrition and avoiding excessive growth rates remains prudent but may not prevent all cases
- •Recognize early lesions (latens stage) may progress or remain static; terminology now clarifies whether cartilage lesions have caused ossification delays (manifesta) or joint surface damage (dissecans) to guide prognosis
- •This in vitro model provides a validated system for studying osteochondrosis mechanisms in horses, potentially leading to better understanding of growth cartilage disorders in young horses
- •The age-dependent differences in chondrocyte behavior suggest that osteochondrosis pathogenesis may involve distinct cellular mechanisms in fetal versus postnatal development
- •Research using this culture system may eventually inform prevention and treatment strategies for osteochondrosis, a significant cause of lameness in growing horses
Key Research Findings
Genomic inbreeding coefficients (FROH) ranged from 0.15 to 0.23 across five Italian native breeds, with Bardigiano and Haflinger showing highest values due to selective breeding.
23 runs of homozygosity (ROH) islands identified across 12 chromosomes, with 83 overlapping quantitative trait loci associated with morphology and health traits.
Health-related traits including osteochondrosis and hoof health were linked to ROH patterns, particularly in cold-blooded breeds, indicating selection for disease resistance.
Selection signatures near MC1R and ASIP genes confirmed artificial selection for coat color, especially in Haflinger and Italian Heavy Draught Horse breeds.
212 studies identified examining genetic and environmental risk factors for equine osteochondrosis and fetlock osteochondral fragments
Significant quantitative trait loci and candidate genes associated with osteochondral disorders have been identified but require further validation
Major challenges to genetic selection include inconsistent phenotype definitions, small reference populations, publication bias, and varying lesion-specific heritabilities across studies
Genomic selection shows considerable potential to reduce economic burden and improve animal welfare, but requires larger populations and standardized phenotyping protocols
212 studies identified demonstrating environmental factors significantly influence equine osteochondral disorder pathogenesis alongside genetic factors
Environmental risk factors categorized into 11 domains: foetal programming, biomechanical trauma, exercise, growth, anatomic conformation, nutrition, weaning, hormonal factors, bacterial infection, sex, and date of birth
Complex multifactorial etiopathogenesis requires longitudinal studies with precise phenotype definitions to elucidate relationships between environmental factors and osteochondral disorders
Knowledge gaps persist in multiple domains requiring future multidisciplinary research to develop effective management strategies for equine orthopaedic health
Systematic review identified a paucity of studies evaluating ultrasonography for osteochondrosis detection in horses with marked variation in populations, sample sizes, methods, and results
No strong evidence currently confirms the diagnostic accuracy and validity of ultrasonography compared to radiography, arthroscopy, or necropsy in detecting osteochondral lesions
Case series and single case reports describing ultrasonographic examination of articular cartilage exist but lack rigorous comparative validation
Evidence Base
Selection signatures and inbreeding: exploring genetic diversity in five native horse breeds.
Asti Vittoria, Summer Andrea, Ablondi Michela et al. (2025) — BMC veterinary research
Systematic Review
Genetic factors of equine osteochondrosis and fetlock osteochondral fragments: A scoping review - Part 2.
Van Mol B, Janssens S, Oosterlinck M et al. (2024) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Systematic Review
Environmental factors of equine osteochondrosis and fetlock osteochondral fragments: A scoping review - Part 1.
Van Mol B, Oosterlinck M, Janssens S et al. (2024) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Systematic Review
A systematic review evaluating the use of ultrasound in the identification of osteochondrosis in horses.
Hoey S, Stokes D, McAllister H et al. (2022) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Systematic Review
Effects of moderate amounts of barley in late pregnancy on growth, glucose metabolism and osteoarticular status of pre-weaning horses.
Peugnet Pauline, Robles Morgane, Mendoza Luis et al. (2015) — PloS one
RCT
Distal sagittal forelimb conformation in young Walloon horses: Radiographic assessment and its relationship with osteochondral fragments.
Van Cauter Raphaël, Caudron Isabelle, Lejeune Jean-Philippe et al. (2024) — PloS one
Cohort Study
Evaluation of the appearance of osteochondrosis lesions by two radiographic examinations in sport horses aged from 12 to 36 months.
Van Cauter Raphaël, Serteyn Didier, Lejeune Jean-Philippe et al. (2023) — PloS one
Cohort Study
Osteochondrosis (Osteochondritis Dissecans) in Lusitano Horses: Prevalence and Characteristics.
Ramos Sofia, Pinto António, Crespo João et al. (2022) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Cohort Study
Genome-Wide Association Analyses of Osteochondrosis in Belgian Warmbloods Reveal Candidate Genes Associated With Chondrocyte Development.
Drabbe Alize, Janssens Steven, Blott Sarah et al. (2022) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Cohort Study
Influence of osteochondrosis on the longevity and racing performance of standardbred trotters and pacers.
Boorman Sophie, Hofmeister Erik H, Ross Michael W et al. (2021) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Cohort Study
The development of hoof balance and landing preference in the post-natal period.
Gorissen B M C, Serra Bragança F M, Wolschrijn C F et al. (2018) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Ultrasonographic screening for subclinical osteochondrosis of the femoral trochlea in foals (28-166 days old): a prospective farm study.
Martel G, Crowley D, Olive J et al. (2018) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Maternal obesity increases insulin resistance, low-grade inflammation and osteochondrosis lesions in foals and yearlings until 18 months of age.
Robles M, Nouveau E, Gautier C et al. (2018) — PloS one
Cohort Study
Prevalence of osteochondral lesions in the fetlock and hock joints of Standardbred horses that survived bacterial infection before 6 months of age.
Hendrickson Eli H S, Lykkjen Sigrid, Dolvik Nils I et al. (2018) — BMC veterinary research
Cohort Study
Maternal Nutrition during Pregnancy Affects Testicular and Bone Development, Glucose Metabolism and Response to Overnutrition in Weaned Horses Up to Two Years.
Robles Morgane, Gautier Camille, Mendoza Luis et al. (2017) — PloS one
Cohort Study
Validation of the ultrasonographic assessment of the femoral trochlea epiphyseal cartilage in foals at osteochondrosis predilected sites with magnetic resonance imaging and histology.
Martel G, Forget C, Gilbert G et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
The development of locomotor kinetics in the foal and the effect of osteochondrosis.
Gorissen B M C, Wolschrijn C F, Serra Bragança F M et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Heritability and prevalence of selected osteochondrosis lesions in yearling Thoroughbred horses.
Russell J, Matika O, Russell T et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Quantitative and qualitative aspects of standing-up behavior and the prevalence of osteochondrosis in Warmblood foals on different farms: could there be a link?
van Grevenhof E M, Gezelle Meerburg A R D, van Dierendonck M C et al. (2017) — BMC veterinary research
Cohort Study
Osteochondrosis and copper: histology of articular cartilage from foals out of copper supplemented and non-supplemented dams.
Gee E, Davies M, Firth E et al. (2007) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Cohort Study
Show 17 more references
Influence of liver copper status of mare and newborn foal on the development of osteochondrotic lesions.
van Weeren P R, Knaap J, Firth E C (2003) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Osteochondrosis in the central and third tarsal bones of young horses.
Olstad Kristin, Ekman Stina, Björnsdóttir Sigriður et al. (2024) — Veterinary pathology
Case Report
Developmental orthopaedic disease and early osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint in a 15‐month‐old Quarter Horse filly
Pimentel K. L., Allen A. L., Carmalt J. L. (2022) — Equine Veterinary Education
Case Report
Microstructural features of subchondral radiolucent lesions in the medial femoral condyle of juvenile Thoroughbreds: A microcomputed tomography and histological analysis.
Lemirre Thibeaut, Santschi Elizabeth M, Girard Christiane A et al. (2022) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Septic Arthritis/Osteomyelitis May Lead to Osteochondrosis-Like Lesions in Foals.
Wormstrand Bjørn, Østevik Liv, Ekman Stina et al. (2018) — Veterinary pathology
Case Report
Cervical Vertebral Lesions in Equine Stenotic Myelopathy.
Janes J G, Garrett K S, McQuerry K J et al. (2015) — Veterinary pathology
Case Report
Osteochondrosis Can Lead to Formation of Pseudocysts and True Cysts in the Subchondral Bone of Horses.
Olstad K, Østevik L, Carlson C S et al. (2015) — Veterinary pathology
Case Report
Epiphyseal cartilage canal blood supply to the metatarsophalangeal joint of foals.
Olstad K, Ytrehus B, Ekman S et al. (2009) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Epiphyseal cartilage canal blood supply to the tarsus of foals and relationship to osteochondrosis.
Olstad K, Ytrehus B, Ekman S et al. (2008) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Differential distribution of cathepsins B and L in articular cartilage during skeletal development in the horse.
Gläser K E, Davies M E, Jeffcott L B (2003) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Development of the blood supply to the growth cartilage of the medial femoral condyle of foals.
Wormstrand Bjørn H, Fjordbakk Cathrine T, Griffiths David J et al. (2021) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Genetic risk factors for osteochondrosis in various horse breeds.
Naccache F, Metzger J, Distl O (2018) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
An Update on the Pathogenesis of Osteochondrosis.
Olstad K, Ekman S, Carlson C S (2015) — Veterinary pathology
Expert Opinion
Owner survey of tarsocrural effusion (bog spavin) in Clydesdale horses.
Weaver M P, Wilant L (2012) — The Veterinary record
Expert Opinion
Epiphyseal cartilage canal blood supply to the distal femur of foals.
Olstad K, Ytrehus B, Ekman S et al. (2008) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Etiology and pathogenesis of osteochondrosis.
Ytrehus B, Carlson C S, Ekman S (2007) — Veterinary pathology
Expert Opinion
Hypertrophy and physiological death of equine chondrocytes in vitro.
Ahmed Y A, Tatarczuch L, Pagel C N et al. (2007) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion