Sepsis: What the Research Says
Evidence from 38 peer-reviewed studies
2 RCT
19 Cohort Study
7 Case Report
10 Expert Opinion
What Professionals Should Know
- •In horses with endotoxemia, adjunctive treatment with ascorbic acid and/or low-dose hydrocortisone may help prevent neutrophil depletion, supporting immune function during critical illness
- •These treatments showed no adverse effects on inflammation markers and warrant consideration as part of multimodal endotoxemia management protocols
- •Early administration (within 1 hour) of these agents may optimize protective effects against sepsis-related neutropenia in clinical practice
- •Consider using antiendotoxin antibody-rich equine plasma in septic foals, as it demonstrates a 6-fold improvement in survival odds over conventional hyperimmune plasma
- •Admission sepsis scoring, IgG levels, fibrinogen, neutrophil counts, and RBC numbers can help prognosticate critically ill foals—high sepsis scores combined with low IgG warrant aggressive intervention
- •Non-septic critically ill foals have excellent prognosis (95% survival), while truly bacteremic foals remain challenging cases requiring plasma therapy and supportive care
- •Plasma nucleosome measurement via ELISA may help differentiate severe sepsis from other conditions in sick foals, potentially improving diagnostic accuracy when clinical signs are non-specific
- •Early identification of severe sepsis through nucleosome analysis could enable more timely intervention in neonatal foals, where sepsis remains a major cause of mortality
- •Further validation with age-matched foal cohorts and larger sample sizes is needed before nucleosome testing can be recommended for routine clinical practice
- •Monitor oxidative stress biomarkers (ROS, MDA, protein carbonyl) and antioxidant levels in critically ill foals as potential indicators of disease severity and sepsis
- •Consider antioxidant supplementation or support strategies during treatment of sick neonatal foals, particularly those with confirmed or suspected sepsis and bacteremia
- •Oxidative injury appears to be a significant pathophysiologic mechanism in equine neonatal sepsis, warranting inclusion in comprehensive critical care management protocols
- •Elevated AFP in sick neonatal foals indicates systemic illness but cannot be used alone to diagnose specific conditions like sepsis versus encephalopathy
- •AFP levels naturally decline with foal age, so interpretation must account for time of sampling; measurements at <72 hours are most relevant
- •AFP may be useful as part of a broader diagnostic panel for assessing neonatal foal health status, but clinicians should rely on blood culture, SIRS criteria, and clinical signs for disease-specific diagnosis
- •Understanding SIRS criteria and their individual components can help practitioners better identify and predict which critically ill foals are at risk for infection and poor outcomes
- •Early recognition of systemic inflammatory response combined with suspected or confirmed infection is critical for managing sepsis in neonatal foals, as sepsis is the leading cause of death in this population
- •This large-scale study provides evidence-based guidance on using inflammatory markers in clinical decision-making for critically ill newborn foals
- •Plasma syndecan-1 measurement may help veterinarians differentiate septic from non-septic illness in hospitalized adult horses, supporting earlier diagnosis and treatment decisions
- •Elevated syndecan-1 levels indicate endothelial damage and glycocalyx degradation, reflecting disease severity and potentially useful for prognostication in septic cases
- •This biomarker could complement existing SIRS criteria and clinical assessment to identify horses requiring aggressive intensive care management
- •While plasma UCHL-1 levels are elevated in foals with neonatal encephalopathy, the test alone has insufficient diagnostic accuracy to reliably distinguish NE from other conditions in clinical practice
- •Time to lowest UCHL-1 concentration may provide prognostic value for identifying at-risk foals, but limited specificity (43%) means elevated results should not be used as standalone prognostic indicators
- •UCHL-1 measurement could be part of a multi-marker diagnostic approach but should not replace clinical assessment and other diagnostic methods in hospitalized foals with neurological signs
- •Current empirical antimicrobial protocols for neonatal sepsis in the Midwest remain effective based on local antibiogram data; ampicillin, ceftiofur, and chloramphenicol combinations show good coverage
- •Negative fluid culture is the strongest predictor of survival—focus diagnostic and treatment efforts on identifying and managing infection status early
- •Monitor regional trends in gram-positive and anaerobic pathogen prevalence; if resistance patterns shift in your area, request updated local antibiogram data to guide empirical therapy
- •AFP measurement in amniotic fluid and foal plasma at birth may serve as a diagnostic marker to identify high-risk pregnancies and sick foals, potentially aiding in early intervention strategies
- •Elevated AFP concentrations correlate with placental pathology and compromised placental barrier function, suggesting AFP could be useful for assessing placental health in at-risk mares
- •Mares with clinical signs of high-risk pregnancy (premature udder development, vulvar discharge, systemic illness, or increased uterine/placental thickness) warrant closer monitoring and potential AFP assessment to predict foal complications
- •SAA has high specificity for ruling out sepsis and predicting nonsurvival in neonatal foals, making it useful as a negative prognostic marker rather than diagnostic confirmation
- •Low sensitivity values mean SAA should not be used alone to diagnose sepsis or predict survival; it should complement clinical assessment and other diagnostic markers
- •Elevated admission SAA concentrations (>1250 mg/L) warrant careful prognosis discussion with owners, though clinical judgment remains essential
- •Serum haptoglobin and GLDH should not be used as prognostic indicators for survival in sick calves in clinical practice
- •Clinical assessment of suckle reflex, heart rate abnormalities, neutrophil count, and gamma-glutamyl transferase activity are more reliable predictors of calf survival than these two biomarkers
- •Results highlight that biomarkers associated with poor outcomes in other species (horses, humans) do not necessarily translate to cattle, requiring species-specific prognostic tools
- •In critically ill foals, measuring progesterone and DHEAS alongside cortisol provides better prognostic information for predicting survival and identifying HPAA dysfunction than cortisol alone
- •A progesterone threshold of 23.5 ng/mL can be used clinically as a cutoff to help guide prognosis and treatment intensity decisions in hospitalised neonatal foals
- •ACTH-to-cortisol ratio imbalance and elevated multiple steroid precursors suggest severe illness severity and warrant aggressive supportive care and investigation for sepsis
- •Understanding the temporal dynamics of immune gene expression in acute systemic inflammation may support future development of improved diagnostic markers for SIRS and sepsis in horses
- •Blood-based immune gene expression profiling could potentially help differentiate systemic inflammatory states and guide therapeutic intervention timing
- •This foundational work identifies candidate genes for monitoring equine innate immune response in acute clinical conditions
- •Neonatal foals with sepsis or septic shock should be screened for coagulopathy with platelet count, PT, aPTT, antithrombin activity, fibrinogen, and fibrin degradation products, as abnormalities are common and associated with clinical bleeding
- •Clinical bleeding in critically ill neonatal foals is a strong indicator of septic shock (67% of septic shock cases) and should prompt aggressive evaluation and treatment
- •Routine fluid or plasma administration did not improve coagulation parameters, suggesting coagulopathy in these foals may require specific targeted interventions beyond supportive care
- •Screen critically ill neonatal foals for HPA axis dysfunction using basal cortisol and cosyntropin stimulation testing, as this dysfunction correlates with poor prognosis and guides treatment decisions
- •Foals presenting with shock or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome should be evaluated for HPA axis dysfunction to identify those at highest risk of mortality
- •Consider HPA axis assessment as part of routine critical care evaluation in hospitalized neonates, as dysfunction is present in approximately half of cases and impacts survival
- •Baseline endocrine profiling (AVP, ACTH, cortisol) at admission may help prognosticate survival in septic neonatal foals and guide treatment intensity decisions
- •Understanding the HPAA response to sepsis in foals enables better recognition of sepsis severity and potential identification of foals at highest mortality risk
- •Monitoring hormonal markers may support clinical decision-making in neonatal foal sepsis management alongside traditional clinical assessments
- •Monitor blood glucose concentrations closely in critically ill neonatal foals at admission and throughout the first 36-60 hours, as abnormal values (especially <50 or >180 mg/dL) are associated with worse outcomes
- •Be alert that hypoglycemia in a critically ill foal is a red flag for sepsis, positive blood culture, or SIRS—investigate for systemic infection
- •Glucose management protocols may improve survival in critically ill foals and warrant clinical investigation and potential implementation in critical care protocols
- •The SNAP IgG test is useful for ruling out FTPI in hospitalized foals due to high sensitivity, but positive results should be confirmed with other indicators like total protein or clinical signs, particularly in septic foals
- •Do not rely on serum total protein or globulin concentration alone to diagnose FTPI in sick foals—use these tests only as supporting evidence alongside clinical assessment
- •Be aware that test accuracy is reduced in systemically ill foals with sepsis or bacteremia; results require careful interpretation in context of the individual foal's clinical presentation and other diagnostic findings
- •Horses with sepsis/endotoxemia commonly develop hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia; monitoring serum calcium and magnesium levels is important for managing septic cases
- •PTH elevation in response to hypocalcemia may be blunted in some horses with endotoxemia, suggesting impaired regulatory mechanisms during severe systemic inflammation
- •Electrolyte abnormalities (low Ca, Mg, K, Pi) are consistent findings in endotoxemic horses and should guide supplementation and supportive therapy strategies
- •Measure arterial lactate directly in critically ill neonatal foals at admission and 18-36 hours post-admission, as it provides important prognostic information for survival prediction
- •Do not rely on anion gap, base excess, or bicarbonate calculations to estimate lactate concentration; direct measurement is significantly more accurate for identifying hyperlactaemia
- •Elevated admission lactate correlates with sepsis, SIRS, and hemodynamic compromise (low MAP, elevated creatinine), making it a useful marker for severity assessment in intensive care foals
- •Short-term endotoxaemia causes significant microcirculatory dysfunction in horses that persists despite conventional haemodynamic management with fluids and vasopressors
- •Clinical monitoring of blood pressure and heart rate alone is insufficient to assess microcirculatory adequacy during sepsis; regional tissue perfusion may remain compromised
- •Veterinarians managing endotoxaemic horses should recognise that normalising MAP does not guarantee restoration of organ microcirculation, suggesting need for additional interventions
- •Medical management with enemas is highly successful for meconium impaction in foals—93% respond fully to treatment alone, so aggressive early intervention with enemas should be the first-line approach
- •Prognosis depends heavily on concurrent conditions; assess foals carefully for sepsis, pneumonia, and failure of passive transfer as these significantly affect outcomes
- •Surgery is rarely needed (9% of cases); reserve surgical intervention for foals failing medical management and without life-limiting comorbidities
- •PB-MSC therapy shows promise as a potential treatment for sepsis in horses but evidence of clinical benefit is not yet established
- •This therapy appears safe when administered intravenously, making it a candidate for further clinical investigation
- •Additional research is needed to determine whether PB-MSC treatment would improve outcomes in septic horses compared to standard care
- •Umbilical infection in neonatal foals should be investigated urgently with culture and ultrasound imaging; fluid pockets warrant surgical intervention to prevent sepsis progression
- •ESBL-producing E. coli sepsis in foals requires culture results and resistance testing before antibiotic selection, as empirical broad-spectrum coverage may prove inadequate
- •Neonatal sepsis presenting with gastrointestinal signs, leukopenia, and multi-organ involvement carries grave prognosis even with intensive supportive care and appropriate antibiotics
- •Foals with hypothyroidism-dysmaturity syndrome appear predisposed to severe ASLO infections; clinicians should maintain high suspicion for bacterial sepsis in these dysmaturity cases
- •Accurate identification of Actinobacillus species requires toxin genotyping (RTX toxin genes), not just biochemical or conventional testing—request appropriate molecular diagnostics from your laboratory
- •Clinical signs of contracted tendons, thyroid abnormalities, and sepsis in neonatal foals warrant investigation for both endocrine dysmaturity and secondary bacterial infection
- •Monitor platelet counts closely in septic and endotoxaemic foals and horses with enterocolitis, as thrombocytopenia may precede distal limb thrombosis and necrosis.
- •Be aware that standard treatment protocols (antibiotics, NSAIDs, crystalloid fluids) alone do not prevent hypercoagulability in severe sepsis; consider adjunctive anticoagulation or plasma therapy in high-risk cases.
- •Sudden onset of distal limb necrosis in septic patients should raise suspicion for arterial thrombosis; early recognition is critical as prognosis is poor once clinical signs appear.
- •Monitor coronary band appearance closely in horses with endotoxemia or sepsis—any cavitation or depression warrants suspicion of distal P3 displacement even if radiographs appear normal
- •Body weight appears to influence prognosis in this syndrome; heavier horses (>470 kg) had worse outcomes, which may inform case management decisions
- •Laminitis in this condition is often a secondary complication; aggressive management of primary conditions (infection, endotoxemia) may help prevent its development
- •Plan for close post-operative monitoring in the first 12-264 hours after uroperitoneum repair, as recurrence is not uncommon (20%) but can be successfully managed with medical or repeat surgical intervention
- •Indwelling urinary catheters should be considered as part of the treatment protocol for recurrent uroperitoneum, as they significantly improve outcomes even when recurrence occurs
- •Surgical technique decisions (debriding bladder edges, suture material/pattern selection) do not influence recurrence rates or survival, allowing flexibility in surgical approach
- •Procalcitonin cannot yet be reliably used as a clinical diagnostic or prognostic tool in equine or canine practice due to lack of validated assays and established reference ranges
- •If considering PCT testing, the canine recombinant ELISA kit shows more promise than currently available equine-specific kits, though standardization remains incomplete
- •Practitioners should await further development and validation of these assays before incorporating PCT testing into sepsis or infection assessment protocols
- •Recognize that sepsis in horses involves dysregulated inflammation rather than simple infection—understanding neutrophil behavior helps explain why some infected horses deteriorate despite antimicrobial therapy
- •Monitor neutrophil changes as potential diagnostic and prognostic indicators; neutrophil dysfunction may offer intervention targets beyond just treating the primary infection
- •Advocate for and apply consistent sepsis definitions and staging in your practice to enable better communication with veterinary teams and contribute to evidence-based sepsis management protocols
- •Laminitis cases should be investigated for underlying systemic disease, particularly endocrine disease, rather than treated as an isolated condition
- •Understanding that lamellar cell stretching and elongation are early key events offers new targets for intervention and management strategies
- •The recognition of a variable subclinical phase suggests potential for earlier detection and prevention if systemic disease triggers are identified and managed promptly
- •Misoprostol, already used safely as a gastroprotectant in horses, shows promise as a cytokine-targeting therapy for inflammatory conditions like sepsis and laminitis
- •In vitro results are encouraging but in vivo studies are needed before clinical application; timing and dosing of misoprostol treatment may affect outcomes differently depending on the cytokine target
- •The drug's selective effects on different cytokines suggest it may require careful clinical evaluation and potentially combination therapy approaches
- •Early recognition and prompt antimicrobial treatment are critical for sepsis outcomes; intensive care including fluid resuscitation, pressure support, and management of inflammation and coagulopathy are essential components of treatment
- •In neonatal foals, ensure adequate passive transfer of colostral antibodies to prevent sepsis; monitor for multiple concurrent conditions including arthritis and meningoencephalitis
- •In mature horses, investigate gastrointestinal disease as the primary source in septic cases, and be alert for secondary complications such as laminitis and coagulopathies that require specific management
- •Understanding PRR function helps explain why endotoxaemia and sepsis in horses involve a balance between beneficial immune activation and harmful systemic inflammation
- •PRR-targeted therapies may represent future treatment approaches to modulate excessive inflammatory responses in equine sepsis and endotoxaemia
- •Recognition of PRR mechanisms provides a biological framework for interpreting clinical signs and treatment responses in horses with systemic inflammatory conditions
- •Ethyl pyruvate is a novel anti-inflammatory agent that may have clinical potential for treating endotoxaemia-related conditions in horses with colic or sepsis, though clinical trials are still needed
- •This preliminary work provides a foundation for further investigation into therapeutic options for conditions with high morbidity and mortality in equine practice
- •Results from preclinical models in other species suggest mechanistic benefit, but efficacy and safety protocols specific to horses require additional study
- •Equine skin appears more susceptible to inflammatory damage during Gram-negative bacterial sepsis due to robust keratinocyte TLR4/TLR5 activation, which may inform monitoring and treatment priorities in septic cases
- •The differential immune response of equine keratinocytes to bacterial types suggests that sepsis management strategies may need pathogen-specific approaches to minimize epidermal complications
- •Clinical observations of worse epidermal complications in Gram-negative sepsis now have a mechanistic explanation at the cellular level, supporting targeted anti-inflammatory interventions in these cases
- •Foals with uroperitoneum have high infection/sepsis rates (78%); aggressive antimicrobial therapy and sepsis management are critical components of treatment beyond surgical repair alone
- •In neonates presenting with dystocia history and early signs of compromise, uroperitoneum should remain on the differential diagnosis list as intrauterine insult and sepsis predispose to this condition
- •Use balanced electrolyte solutions for IV fluid therapy in affected foals—they prevent the severe electrolyte abnormalities that increase anesthetic risk, though monitoring creatinine and urine output remains essential
Key Research Findings
Ascorbic acid administration was associated with higher blood neutrophil counts 6 hours after LPS infusion (11.01 K/μl vs 8.99 K/μL in controls, P<0.009)
Hydrocortisone administration was associated with higher blood neutrophil counts 12 hours after LPS infusion (10.40 K/μl vs 6.88 K/μL in controls, P<0.001)
Neither ascorbic acid nor hydrocortisone showed effects on clinical signs or pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression compared to controls
Combined ascorbic acid and hydrocortisone therapy appeared to protect against LPS-induced neutrophil depletion
Overall survival rate was 72% (49/68), with septic foals having 57% survival compared to 95% in non-septic foals
Antiendotoxin antibody-rich plasma significantly improved survival in the entire population (OR 6.763, P=0.012) and in septic foals specifically (OR 6.267, P=0.019)
High sepsis score, low IgG concentration, high fibrinogen, low segmented neutrophil count, and low red blood cell numbers were independent predictors of mortality
Sepsis score >11 had 74% sensitivity and 52% specificity for predicting bacteremia in critically ill foals
Plasma nucleosome levels were significantly increased in foals with severe sepsis (n=24) compared to sick non-septic (n=31) and clinically healthy foals (n=16)
No significant difference in nucleosome levels was detected between sick non-septic and clinically healthy foals
Nucleosomes are released during neutrophil extracellular trap formation and from damaged/dead cells, making them potential biomarkers for severe sepsis in foals
Ill foals had significantly higher H2O2 concentrations (6.8 ± 4.6 nmol/mL) compared to healthy foals (2.6 ± 1.4 nmol/mL)
Ill foals demonstrated elevated MDA levels (114.3 ± 94.0 nmol/mL) versus healthy foals (31.2 ± 14.4 nmol/mL), indicating lipid peroxidation
Ill foals showed significantly reduced antioxidant capacity including catalase (0.02 vs 0.4 mU/mg protein), glutathione (110.7 vs 238.5 μg/mL), and glutathione peroxidase (0.007 vs 0.01 mU/mg protein)
Oxidative stress markers and antioxidant depletion may serve as measurable biomarkers for sepsis severity in critically ill neonatal foals
Evidence Base
Effects of administration of ascorbic acid and low-dose hydrocortisone after infusion of sublethal doses of lipopolysaccharide to horses.
Anderson Melinda J, Ibrahim Alina S, Cooper Bruce R et al. (2020) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
RCT
Prognostic value of clinicopathologic variables obtained at admission and effect of antiendotoxin plasma on survival in septic and critically ill foals.
Peek Simon F, Semrad Sue, McGuirk Sheila M et al. (2006) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
RCT
Increased plasma nucleosomes are associated with severe sepsis in foals.
Birckhead E M, Raidal S L, Das S et al. (2025) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Cohort Study
Oxidative stress in critically ill neonatal foals.
Wong David, Sahoo Dipak Kumar, Faivre Cosette et al. (2025) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Plasma alpha-fetoprotein in neonatal foals affected by prematurity, sepsis and neonatal encephalopathy.
Lanci A, Ellero N, Castagnetti C et al. (2025) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Cohort Study
The Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome and Predictors of Infection and Mortality in 1068 Critically Ill Newborn Foals.
Wilkins Pamela A, Wong David, Slovis Nathan M et al. (2025) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Plasma syndecan-1 concentration as a biomarker for endothelial glycocalyx degradation in septic adult horses.
Hobbs Kallie J, Johnson Philip J, Wiedmeyer Charles E et al. (2023) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Plasma UCHL-1 as a Biomarker of Brain Injury in Hospitalized Foals With Neonatal Encephalopathy.
Ryan Clare A, Giguère Steeve, Morresey Peter R (2023) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Cohort Study
Antibiograms of field and hospital acquired equine neonatal bacterial fluid cultures in the Midwestern United States: 149 samples (2007-2018).
Bookbinder Lauren C, Mani Rinosh, Carr Elizabeth A (2023) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
High-Risk Pregnancy Is Associated With Increased Alpha-Fetoprotein Concentrations in the Amniotic Fluid and Foal Plasma.
Lanci Aliai, Mariella Jole, Ellero Nicola et al. (2022) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Cohort Study
Serum amyloid A as a marker to detect sepsis and predict outcome in hospitalized neonatal foals.
Hoeberg Emma, Sånge Alexandra, Saegerman Claude et al. (2022) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Serum haptoglobin concentration and liver enzyme activity as indicators of systemic inflammatory response syndrome and survival of sick calves.
Jaramillo Camilo, Renaud David L, Arroyo Luis G et al. (2022) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Steroids, steroid precursors, and neuroactive steroids in critically ill equine neonates.
Dembek K A, Timko K J, Johnson L M et al. (2017) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Cohort Study
Dynamic expression of leukocyte innate immune genes in whole blood from horses with lipopolysaccharide-induced acute systemic inflammation.
Vinther Anne Mette L, Skovgaard Kerstin, Heegaard Peter M H et al. (2015) — BMC veterinary research
Cohort Study
Prospective evaluation of coagulation in critically ill neonatal foals.
Bentz A I, Palmer J E, Dallap B L et al. (2009) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction in hospitalized neonatal foals.
Hart K A, Slovis N M, Barton M H (2009) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Blood arginine vasopressin, adrenocorticotropin hormone, and cortisol concentrations at admission in septic and critically ill foals and their association with survival.
Hurcombe S D A, Toribio R E, Slovis N et al. (2008) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Blood glucose concentrations in critically ill neonatal foals.
Hollis A R, Furr M O, Magdesian K G et al. (2008) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Usefulness of a commercial equine IgG test and serum protein concentration as indicators of failure of transfer of passive immunity in hospitalized foals.
Metzger Nadine, Hinchcliff Kenneth W, Hardy Joanne et al. (2006) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Alterations in serum parathyroid hormone and electrolyte concentrations and urinary excretion of electrolytes in horses with induced endotoxemia.
Toribio Ramiro E, Kohn Catherine W, Hardy Joanne et al. (2005) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Cohort Study
Show 18 more references
Arterial lactate concentration, hospital survival, sepsis and SIRS in critically ill neonatal foals.
Corley K T T, Donaldson L L, Furr M O (2005) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Changes in microcirculation variables in an acute endotoxaemic equine model.
Sauter, Steblaj, Kästner et al. (2025) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Characteristics of meconium impaction/retention in newborn foals: From 2006 to 2024.
Rivera Maza S, Bishop R C, Austin S M et al. (2025) — Equine veterinary education
Case Report
Effects of intravenous administration of peripheral blood-derived mesenchymal stromal cells after infusion of lipopolysaccharide in horses.
Taylor Sandra D, Serpa Priscila B S, Santos Andrea P et al. (2022) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Case Report
CTX-M-15 Producing Escherichia coli Sequence Type 361 and Sequence Type 38 Causing Bacteremia and Umbilical Infection in a Neonate Foal.
Shnaiderman-Torban Anat, Navon-Venezia Shiri, Dahan Roee et al. (2020) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Case Report
Mesenteric lymphangitis and sepsis due to RTX toxin-producing Actinobacillus spp in 2 foals with hypothyroidism-dysmaturity syndrome.
Löhr C V, Polster U, Kuhnert P et al. (2012) — Veterinary pathology
Case Report
Acute thrombosis of limb arteries in horses with sepsis: five cases (1988-1998).
Brianceau P, Divers T J (2001) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Equine laminitis caused by distal displacement of the distal phalanx: 12 cases (1976-1985).
Baxter (1986) — Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
Case Report
Complications and Comorbidities in Foals Undergoing Surgical Repair for Uroperitoneum.
Ford Matthew G, Nelson Brad B, Ford Troy S et al. (2022) — Journal of equine veterinary science
Expert Opinion
Procalcitonin Detection in Veterinary Species: Investigation of Commercial ELISA Kits.
Battaglia Federica, Meucci Valentina, Tognetti Rosalba et al. (2020) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
Expert Opinion
A Comparative Review of Equine SIRS, Sepsis, and Neutrophils.
Sheats M Katie (2019) — Frontiers in veterinary science
Expert Opinion
Paradigm shifts in understanding equine laminitis.
Patterson-Kane, Karikoski, McGowan (2018) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Expert Opinion
Misoprostol Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Pro-inflammatory Cytokine Production by Equine Leukocytes.
Martin Emily Medlin, Messenger Kristen M, Sheats Mary Katherine et al. (2017) — Frontiers in veterinary science
Expert Opinion
A review of equine sepsis.
Taylor S (2015) — Equine veterinary education
Expert Opinion
Pattern recognition receptors in equine endotoxaemia and sepsis.
Werners A H, Bryant C E (2012) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Preliminary safety and biological efficacy studies of ethyl pyruvate in normal mature horses.
Schroeder E L, Holcombe S J, Cook V L et al. (2011) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Proinflammatory cytokine responses of cultured equine keratinocytes to bacterial pathogen-associated molecular pattern motifs.
Leise B S, Yin C, Pettigrew A et al. (2010) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Uroperitoneum in 32 foals: influence of intravenous fluid therapy, infection, and sepsis.
Dunkel Bettina, Palmer Jonathan E, Olson Kim N et al. (2005) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine
Expert Opinion