Septic Arthritis: What the Research Says
Evidence from 38 peer-reviewed studies
3 Systematic Review
2 RCT
12 Cohort Study
13 Case Report
8 Expert Opinion
What Professionals Should Know
- •PRP appears efficacious as an intra-articular treatment for equine osteoarthritis and may help with septic arthritis, though clinical outcomes vary significantly between product types
- •Until standardized PRP classification and higher-quality randomized controlled trials are available, practitioners should carefully evaluate individual product evidence and maintain realistic expectations about treatment variability
- •Consider PRP as part of a multimodal treatment approach for joint disease, but recognize current evidence quality limitations when counseling clients on expected outcomes
- •Reconsider routine prophylactic intra-articular antibiotic use and ensure dosing strategies are evidence-based rather than conventional practice
- •Be aware that achieving high local concentrations does not guarantee efficacy and carries potential risks of local toxicity to joint tissues
- •Use intra-articular antibiotics selectively for documented septic arthritis rather than as standard adjunctive therapy with other joint medications
- •Multiple synovial structure involvement and concurrent bone or tendon pathology significantly worsen prognosis for return to athletic function—thorough diagnostic imaging is critical at presentation
- •Systemic antimicrobial use was identified as a factor affecting outcomes; work with your veterinarian to optimize antimicrobial protocols based on culture and sensitivity results
- •Current literature lacks consensus on case definitions and success metrics for synovial sepsis, so ensure detailed documentation of your cases to contribute to future evidence and compare outcomes with similar presentations
- •If using intra-articular amikacin for septic arthritis, consider doses lower than traditionally recommended (start at 125 mg or less) to maintain pathogen kill while reducing damage to joint cartilage and immune function
- •High-dose intra-articular aminoglycosides may paradoxically impair local immune response by killing protective neutrophils and T cells—balance antimicrobial efficacy against immunosuppression
- •Monitor closely for cartilage degradation and systemic infection when using intra-articular aminoglycosides, as cytotoxicity to synovial cells may mask clinical signs of inflammation
- •NGAL measured in synovial fluid appears useful as a diagnostic biomarker to differentiate septic from non-septic joint inflammation and assess inflammation severity
- •Synovial fluid samples are more diagnostically sensitive than serum for NGAL detection in joint disease, making joint aspiration the preferred diagnostic approach
- •NGAL concentration correlates with inflammatory cell infiltration, so it could help clinicians quantify inflammation intensity and potentially guide treatment intensity decisions
- •Foals treated for single joint septic arthritis have a favorable prognosis for survival (93%), making aggressive treatment justified
- •Synovial fluid cell counts at discharge can help predict outcomes—lower counts indicate better prognosis
- •While these foals can race, expect reduced lifetime earnings compared to unaffected siblings; manage owner expectations accordingly
- •NGAL is a highly accurate biomarker that can help definitively identify septic arthritis in horses, reducing diagnostic uncertainty compared to traditional synovial fluid analysis alone
- •NGAL levels can be tracked during treatment to objectively monitor response to therapy and guide clinical decision-making regarding duration of treatment
- •A cut-off value of 444.6 µg/L can help distinguish confirmed septic cases from questionable or borderline cases when initial diagnosis is unclear
- •This cohort study provides evidence-based prognostic information to help veterinarians counsel owners on both survival and future racing potential following septic arthritis treatment
- •Use maternal sibling comparisons as baseline controls to isolate the true impact of septic arthritis on long-term performance outcomes
- •Long-term follow-up data can support informed decision-making regarding treatment intensity and investment in affected foals
- •Consider epidural opioid analgesia for horses undergoing hindlimb synovial sepsis surgery to improve recovery quality
- •Older horses and Cob breeds may need additional perioperative management strategies to optimize recovery outcomes
- •Minimize intraoperative dosages of ketamine and thiopental where possible to improve post-anaesthetic recovery quality
- •Femoropatellar arthroscopy carries the highest infection risk (~1.67% SSI, 2.23% septic arthritis); extra vigilance with asepsis and perioperative antimicrobials is warranted for this joint
- •Horses undergoing arthroscopy for large lesions (>40 mm) need enhanced infection prevention protocols and close post-operative monitoring, as SSI risk increases substantially
- •Younger horses developing SSI after arthroscopy are at heightened risk of progressing to septic arthritis and warrant aggressive early intervention if infection signs emerge
- •Arthroscopic lavage combined with repeated intra-articular antibiotics effectively reduces synovial inflammation markers in septic arthritis cases, supporting continued use of this treatment protocol.
- •Monitor synovial nucleated cell counts through mid-treatment (days 10-14) as a potential prognostic indicator, but do not rely on total protein or neutrophil percentages alone to predict clinical outcome.
- •Plan for serial synovial fluid sampling every 48 hours throughout hospitalization to track treatment response, as these parameters provide objective evidence of therapeutic effect.
- •Monitor both inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers in joint fluid when diagnosing septic arthritis—elevated d-dimer and TAT alongside protein/WBC provide more complete picture of joint pathology
- •Early intervention within first 2-4 hours post-infection is critical as biomarker changes occur rapidly; clinical lameness may lag behind biochemical changes
- •Consider anti-coagulation or fibrinolytic therapy alongside anti-inflammatory treatment in septic joints, as fibrin deposition contributes to joint damage
- •Use serial SAA measurements every 48 hours to objectively monitor treatment response in horses with penetrating synovial injuries—declining levels indicate successful management
- •SAA provides an objective biomarker to guide clinical decision-making on whether current treatment protocols are working or need adjustment
- •Rapidly rising SAA levels may indicate treatment failure or deteriorating septic conditions, warranting immediate reassessment of management strategy
- •When treating equine synovial sepsis empirically before culture results, tetracyclines, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole, or gentamicin are suitable first-line choices based on local prevalence data from this cohort
- •Expect Gram-positive bacteria (especially Staphylococcus aureus) in 75% of synovial infections; cover accordingly while awaiting culture confirmation
- •Protected antimicrobials like ceftiofur and enrofloxacin offer excellent coverage (70-90% and 80% respectively) if first-line options fail or resistance is suspected
- •Higher synovial fluid protein levels at presentation are a negative prognostic indicator; consider them when counseling owners on survival chances
- •Timing of surgical intervention matters—cases requiring out-of-hours anaesthesia had worse outcomes, suggesting early referral during business hours may improve prognosis
- •Horses requiring repeat endoscopic surgeries have significantly reduced survival rates; initial surgical management should be as thorough as possible
- •Synovial fluid MPO analysis provides a rapid, objective complement to traditional diagnostics (WBC count, protein levels) when differentiating septic from non-septic joint disease
- •Two reliable detection methods (ELISA and SIEFED) are available for clinical use, allowing flexibility based on laboratory capabilities and turnaround time requirements
- •This biomarker is particularly valuable when conventional synovial fluid parameters are inconclusive, helping reduce diagnostic uncertainty in equine joint infections
- •Owners and veterinarians should counsel that neonatal septic arthritis substantially reduces a foal's likelihood of ever starting on a racecourse, even with successful treatment and discharge
- •Recovery from septic arthritis significantly delays racing debut by approximately 1.3 years compared to unaffected foals, even among those that do eventually race
- •The presence of multisystem disease at presentation is the strongest predictor of not surviving to discharge, but should not discourage treatment in foals that do recover, as it does not further reduce racing prospects
- •CB-MSCs may represent a viable adjunctive therapy option for cases of septic arthritis and osteomyelitis that fail to respond adequately to conventional treatment (lavage, antibiotics), though this remains a single case.
- •TLR3-activation of MSCs prior to intra-articular injection may enhance antimicrobial efficacy; consider this when accessing experimental cell therapy protocols for resistant infections.
- •Successful long-term outcomes (12-month soundness and bone remodeling) suggest CB-MSC therapy merits further investigation in prospective clinical trials for septic bone and joint disease in foals.
- •High-volume arthroscopic lavage alone is insufficient treatment for septic arthritis—expect persistent positive cultures even after 20 liters, particularly with S. aureus infections
- •Post-lavage bacterial culture should not be used as the sole indicator of treatment success; adjunctive systemic antibiotics and additional therapeutic interventions are essential
- •S. aureus infections require more aggressive treatment protocols than gram-negative organisms; expect greater bacterial persistence regardless of lavage volume
- •NGF levels in synovial fluid may serve as a biomarker to differentiate healthy joints from those with osteoarthritis or septic inflammation in horses
- •Understanding NGF signalling pathways in equine joints could inform development of novel therapeutic targets for osteoarthritis management
- •Further research on NGF receptor expression and downstream signalling is needed to translate these findings into clinical applications for joint disease in horses
- •Surgical excision of infected or patent umbilical remnants has good outcomes (89% survival), but foals with concurrent septic arthritis/physitis require careful prognostic counseling due to significantly worse survival
- •Minimize anaesthesia time and optimize passive transfer status preoperatively to reduce post-operative complication risk
- •Be alert for concurrent infectious conditions (present in 60.6% of cases) before surgery, particularly diarrhoea and joint/bone infections, as these substantially impact prognosis
- •Foals recovering from septic arthritis or osteomyelitis may develop osteochondral lesions that are indistinguishable from hereditary OCD but are acquired rather than genetic in origin—careful monitoring of joint health post-infection is warranted
- •Sepsis-induced OCD lesions should not automatically be considered heritable defects; breeding decisions for affected horses should account for the infectious origin of the lesions
- •Early recognition and aggressive treatment of septic arthritis/osteomyelitis in foals may help prevent secondary osteochondral damage through vascular disruption in growth cartilage
- •Ultrasound guidance is critical when performing arthroscopy of the atlanto-occipital joint to avoid catastrophic dural perforation and spinal cord damage
- •The dorsal arthroscopic approach provides limited but useful access to the cranial joint surfaces and may be considered for septic arthritis in young foals
- •Advanced imaging (CT and ultrasound) should guide surgical planning for A-O joint procedures to improve safety and surgical outcome
- •Early diagnosis and prompt surgical intervention for umbilical infections significantly improve survival outcomes — refer suspected cases immediately rather than attempting medical management alone
- •Poor prognostic indicators (young age, septic joints, multiple organ involvement, elevated kidney markers, high heart rate) should guide realistic client counselling about treatment expectations and costs
- •Post-operative monitoring for complications is critical as these were associated with lower long-term survival rates; expect hospitalization times may be prolonged in complicated cases
- •Consider coxofemoral joint infectious arthritis in mature horses presenting with proximal limb pain and elevated acute phase proteins, even though it is rare.
- •Ultrasound-guided synovial fluid aspiration is a valuable diagnostic tool for confirming septic arthritis when synovial infection is suspected.
- •Non-surgical management may be a viable option for coxofemoral joint infection in mature horses, though prognosis depends on individual case factors.
- •Elective arthroscopy appears safe without routine prophylactic antimicrobials based on this large series, though individual risk assessment and surgical technique remain critical
- •Close postoperative monitoring for fever and limb swelling is essential, as these were the earliest signs of complications in this cohort
- •Proper postoperative bandaging technique matters—2 cases involved complications from inappropriate bandaging, highlighting the importance of wound management protocols
- •Suprapatellar arthroscopy is a valuable complementary technique to standard femoropatellar arthroscopy for accessing proximal joint structures and removing debris/fibrin from the suprapatellar pouch
- •This approach is particularly useful for OCD lesions that extend proximally and fractures involving the proximal patella where distal-only access is inadequate
- •Safe surgical technique with established anatomical landmarks can improve surgical outcomes for proximal femoropatellar pathology
- •Consider septic osteitis of the distal phalanx in any foal under 4 months old presenting with foot lameness and radiographic evidence of focal bone lysis—early diagnosis and aggressive surgical treatment improve outcomes
- •Hematogenous spread to the distal phalanx can occur independently of penetrating wounds; infection should not be automatically attributed to sole or hoof penetration
- •Prognosis is substantially better than historically expected, with most foals surviving to discharge and many eventually competing in racing, supporting aggressive therapeutic intervention
- •Hydro-pool recovery is worth considering for high-risk recoveries (large horses, prolonged anesthesia, compromised limbs), but requires extra staffing and monitoring
- •Pulmonary edema is a serious complication risk (17%) with this method—monitor respiratory status closely and have treatment protocols ready
- •Standard stall recovery remains simpler and safer for uncomplicated cases; reserve hydro-pool for truly difficult recovery scenarios
- •Intraarticular ceftiofur sodium is a safe and effective broad-spectrum option for treating septic arthritis, achieving therapeutic concentrations that persist throughout 24 hours
- •IA administration achieves 800-fold higher joint fluid concentrations than IV dosing while maintaining safety with no cartilage or synovial damage at the 150 mg dose
- •This dosing regimen may allow for once-daily or less frequent IA injections compared to other antibiotics, improving clinical practicality in managing septic joints
- •Post-orthopedic surgery protocols vary significantly by procedure type—particularly with deep digital flexor tendon repairs requiring substantially longer conservative management phases (hand-walking and paddock rest) before return to work.
- •NSAIDs, proper bandaging, and controlled hand-walking form the foundation of postoperative care across all common equine orthopedic surgeries, with rehabilitation specialists recommending additional structured modalities more frequently than general surgeons.
- •Establish case-specific timelines for return to turnout and ridden exercise rather than applying a one-size-fits-all approach; tendon repairs need longer management than arthroscopic procedures.
- •Intra-articular aminoglycoside use requires careful dose consideration as toxicity to joint resident cells has been demonstrated and safe dosing protocols are not yet established
- •When treating septic arthritis or co-injecting with osteoarthritis medications, veterinarians should weigh the antimicrobial benefits against demonstrated chondrocyte and synovial cell toxicity
- •Further in vivo studies are needed to establish safe intra-articular aminoglycoside dosing protocols for equine joint injections
- •Equine and porcine synovial fluid models provide a practical alternative to rodent models for studying joint infections and biofilm formation, with abundant fluid samples available for research
- •Bacterial biofilms in infected joints explain clinical resistance to standard antibiotic therapy—treatment may require adjunctive strategies to disrupt biofilm architecture alongside antimicrobials
- •Future therapeutic approaches targeting biofilm disruption mechanisms could improve outcomes in difficult-to-treat joint infections in both horses and humans
- •SAA measurement in both serum and synovial fluid can help differentiate septic arthritis from aseptic synovitis, with septic cases showing significantly elevated SAA while synovitis cases remain normal
- •Serum SAA rises faster than synovial SAA in septic arthritis, making serum sampling useful for early diagnosis before synovial changes are apparent
- •Handheld SAA assays are reasonably reliable for clinical use (98% agreement at low concentrations), though numeric comparisons with lab assays should be interpreted cautiously at higher concentrations
- •If considering co-injection of antimicrobials with stem cell therapy in joints, verify that therapeutic concentrations do not impair stem cell viability or function in vitro
- •Hyaluronic acid is commonly used with joint injections; this study provides baseline data on whether it affects stem cell therapy efficacy
- •Prophylactic antimicrobial use with intra-articular BM-MSC injections requires safety validation to prevent iatrogenic cell damage
- •Ultrasound-guided technique offers a safer, more reliable alternative to landmark-based coxofemoral arthrocentesis by avoiding sciatic nerve proximity and improving accuracy
- •The procedure is well-tolerated in standing horses requiring only minimal sedation, making it practical for field use in diagnostic and therapeutic applications
- •Real-time ultrasonic visualization enables confirmation of intra-articular needle placement and allows diagnosis of hip joint pain, infection, and safe medication administration
- •Measure synovial fluid proMMP9:proMMP2 ratio and WBCC early in septic arthritis cases to help predict prognosis and guide treatment intensity
- •Do not use delay to treatment as a negative prognostic factor—horses referred late still have reasonable survival prospects if treated
- •Gelatin zymography analysis of joint fluid biomarkers may help stratify risk and inform owner discussions about treatment feasibility
- •Speed is critical—early recognition and aggressive treatment are directly linked to successful recovery and return to athletic function; any delay significantly increases failure risk
- •Surgical debridement and lavage are essential treatment components and should not be delayed; antimicrobial therapy alone is insufficient
- •Multiple routes of antimicrobial administration (local, regional, systemic) are available and should be selected based on the specific infection location and compartment affected
Key Research Findings
Meta-analysis of 5 studies showed PRP treatment significantly improved outcomes compared to control (OR: 15.32; 95% CI: 3.00-78.15; p<0.05)
Clinical performance outcomes showed even greater improvement with PRP treatment (OR: 36.64; 95% CI: 3.69-364.30; p<0.05)
21 publications reviewed demonstrated variable study quality with high risk of bias overall, but consistent treatment benefit
PRP shows promise for septic arthritis treatment but evidence base is limited by heterogeneous product types and lack of standardized classification systems
Intra-articular antibiotic administration has been used prophylactically and therapeutically in equine practice for decades with limited pharmacokinetic data available
High local drug concentrations are the primary rationale for intra-articular injection, but potential for local toxicity has received insufficient attention
Antibiotic resistance trends necessitate reconsideration of off-label antibiotic usage and evidence-based dosing strategies in equine joint therapy
Current literature on intra-articular antibiotics in horses requires synthesis regarding safety, efficacy, and appropriate clinical applications
61 studies met inclusion criteria from 2,338 identified, but only 8 papers reported significant treatment outcome factors
15 risk factors associated with survival and/or return to athletic function were identified and categorized as pre-, intra-, and post-operative factors
Number and type of synovial structures involved, presence of pannus, and tendon/bone pathology were identified as significant risk factors affecting outcomes
Substantial heterogeneity in inclusion criteria and outcome measurement across studies limits meaningful comparison and meta-analysis
All three amikacin doses (500, 125, 31.25 mg) maintained synovial fluid concentrations above the MIC for common equine joint pathogens for 24 hours
The highest amikacin dose (500 mg) significantly increased inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β and cartilage degradation markers (C2C, C12C) despite no increase in total cell counts
Aminoglycosides kill chondrocytes, synoviocytes, neutrophils, and T cells at clinically relevant doses through apoptosis, potentially blunting protective immune responses
Evidence Base
A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of platelet-rich plasma products for treatment of equine joint disease.
Peng Cong, Yang Luo, Labens Raphael et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal
Systematic Review
Intra-articular administration of antibiotics in horses: Justifications, risks, reconsideration of use and outcomes.
Pezzanite Lynn M, Hendrickson Dean A, Dow Steven et al. (2022) — Equine veterinary journal
Systematic Review
A scoping review of the current evidence on treatment and outcomes following synovial sepsis.
de Souza Therese C, Suthers Joanna M, Busschers Evita et al. (2022) — Equine veterinary journal
Systematic Review
Evaluation of Intra-Articular Amikacin Administration in an Equine Non-inflammatory Joint Model to Identify Effective Bactericidal Concentrations While Minimizing Cytotoxicity.
Pezzanite Lynn, Chow Lyndah, Hendrickson Dean et al. (2021) — Frontiers in veterinary science
RCT
Influence of clinical and experimental intra-articular inflammation on neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin concentrations in horses.
Frydendal Catina, Nielsen Katrine B, Berg Lise C et al. (2021) — Veterinary surgery : VS
RCT
Prognosis for survival to discharge and racing performance in Thoroughbred foals treated for single joint septic arthritis (2009-2016).
Whisenant Katrijn D, Ruggles Alan J, Stefanovski Darko et al. (2023) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin in Synovial Fluid from Horses with and without Septic Arthritis.
Jacobsen Stine, Mortensen Camilla Drejer, Høj Elisabeth Alkærsig et al. (2022) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
Cohort Study
Factors associated with survival and racing performance of 114 Thoroughbred foals with septic arthritis compared with maternal siblings (2009-2015).
O'Brien Thomas J, Rosanowski Sarah M, Mitchell Keith D et al. (2021) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Epidural administration of opioid analgesics improves quality of recovery in horses anaesthetised for treatment of hindlimb synovial sepsis.
Louro Luís F, Milner Peter I, Bardell David (2021) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Incidence and risk factors of surgical site infection and septic arthritis after elective arthroscopy in horses.
Brunsting Julie Y, Pille Frederik J, Oosterlinck Maarten et al. (2018) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Cohort Study
Effect of arthroscopic lavage and repeated intra-articular administrations of antibiotic in adult horses and foals with septic arthritis.
Cousty Matthieu, David Stack John, Tricaud Cyril et al. (2017) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Cohort Study
Changes in concentrations of haemostatic and inflammatory biomarkers in synovial fluid after intra-articular injection of lipopolysaccharide in horses.
Andreassen Stine Mandrup, Vinther Anne Mette Lindberg, Nielsen Søren Saxmose et al. (2017) — BMC veterinary research
Cohort Study
Course of serum amyloid A (SAA) plasma concentrations in horses undergoing surgery for injuries penetrating synovial structures, an observational clinical study.
Haltmayer Eva, Schwendenwein Ilse, Licka Theresia F (2017) — BMC veterinary research
Cohort Study
Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial isolates from horses with synovial sepsis: A cross-sectional study of 95 cases.
Robinson C S, Timofte D, Singer E R et al. (2016) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Cohort Study
Factors associated with survival to hospital discharge following endoscopic treatment for synovial sepsis in 214 horses.
Milner P I, Bardell D A, Warner L et al. (2014) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Equine myeloperoxidase: a novel biomarker in synovial fluid for the diagnosis of infection.
Wauters J, Pille F, Martens A et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
What is the likelihood that Thoroughbred foals treated for septic arthritis will race?
Smith L J, Marr C M, Payne R J et al. (2004) — Equine veterinary journal
Cohort Study
Case Report: Equine allogeneic umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stromal cells (CB-MSC) as adjunctive therapy in a foal with septic arthritis and osteomyelitis.
Horna Marta, Merchán Muñoz Alejandro, Goodrich Laurie et al. (2026) — Frontiers in veterinary science
Case Report
The effect of arthroscopic lavage volume on bacterial culture of egress fluid in horses with experimentally induced septic arthritis and synovitis.
Friedlund Alannah M, Bracamonte Jose L, Koziy Roman V et al. (2025) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Nerve growth factor in the equine joint.
Kendall A, Nyström S, Ekman S et al. (2021) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)
Case Report
Show 18 more references
Short-term outcome and risk factors for post-operative complications following umbilical resection in 82 foals (2004-2016).
Reig Codina L, Werre S R, Brown J A (2019) — Equine veterinary journal
Case Report
Septic Arthritis/Osteomyelitis May Lead to Osteochondrosis-Like Lesions in Foals.
Wormstrand Bjørn, Østevik Liv, Ekman Stina et al. (2018) — Veterinary pathology
Case Report
Arthroscopic approach and intra-articular anatomy of the equine atlanto-occipital joint.
Wright Linda, Puchalski Sarah M, Kristoffersen Mads et al. (2018) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Surgical management and long-term outcome of umbilical infection in 65 foals (2010-2015).
Oreff Gil L, Tatz Amos J, Dahan Roee et al. (2017) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Idiopathic infectious arthritis of the coxofemoral joint in a mature horse
Woodford N. S., Puzio J., Parker R. D. (2017) — Equine Veterinary Education
Case Report
Postoperative septic arthritis after elective equine arthroscopy without antimicrobial prophylaxis.
Borg Hanna, Carmalt James L (2013) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Arthroscopic surgical approach and intra-articular anatomy of the equine suprapatellar pouch.
Vinardell Tatiana, David Florent, Morisset Sophie (2008) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Septic osteitis of the distal phalanx in foals: 22 cases (1995-2002).
Neil, Axon, Todhunter et al. (2007) — Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
Case Report
Use of a hydro-pool system to recover horses after general anesthesia: 60 cases.
Tidwell Scott A, Schneider Robert K, Ragle Claude A et al. (2002) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Determination of synovial fluid and serum concentrations, and morphologic effects of intraarticular ceftiofur sodium in horses.
Mills M L, Rush B R, St Jean G et al. (2000) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Case Report
Postoperative management following equine orthopedic surgery: a survey of diplomates of the ACVS and ACVSMR.
Jacobs Carrie, Schnabel Lauren Virginia, Redding Horne Caitlyn et al. (2025) — Frontiers in veterinary science
Expert Opinion
Amikacin induces rapid dose-dependent apoptotic cell death in equine chondrocytes and synovial cells in vitro.
Pezzanite Lynn, Chow Lyndah, Soontararak Sirikul et al. (2020) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Equine or porcine synovial fluid as a novel ex vivo model for the study of bacterial free-floating biofilms that form in human joint infections.
Gilbertie Jessica M, Schnabel Lauren V, Hickok Noreen J et al. (2019) — PloS one
Expert Opinion
Serum and Synovial Fluid Serum Amyloid A Response in Equine Models of Synovitis and Septic Arthritis.
Ludwig Elsa K, Brandon Wiese R, Graham Megan R et al. (2016) — Veterinary surgery : VS
Expert Opinion
The effects of therapeutic concentrations of gentamicin, amikacin and hyaluronic acid on cultured bone marrow-derived equine mesenchymal stem cells.
Bohannon L K, Owens S D, Walker N J et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Ultrasound-guided coxofemoral arthrocentesis in horses.
David F, Rougier M, Alexander K et al. (2007) — Equine veterinary journal
Expert Opinion
Use of matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 and white blood cell counts in monitoring the treatment and predicting the survival of horses with septic arthritis.
Kidd J A, Barr A R S, Tarlton J F (2007) — The Veterinary record
Expert Opinion
Septic arthritis, tenosynovitis, and infections of hoof structures.
Lugo, Gaughan (2007) — The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice
Expert Opinion