Colic: What the Research Says

Evidence from 237 peer-reviewed studies

5 Systematic Review
7 RCT
105 Cohort Study
65 Case Report
53 Expert Opinion
2 Thesis

What Professionals Should Know

  • •Current scientific evidence does not support superiority of any single NSAID (meloxicam, flunixin meglumine, phenylbutazone, firocoxib, or ketoprofen) over others for equine abdominal pain
  • •Clinical decision-making regarding NSAID choice for colic should rely on experience, individual horse response, and contraindications rather than comparative efficacy data
  • •Higher-quality controlled trials with standardized, validated pain assessment tools are urgently needed to guide evidence-based NSAID selection in equine colic management
  • •L-lactate measurement should be a standard diagnostic tool when assessing horses with suspected severe colic, as it is currently the most reliable single biomarker available
  • •A multi-marker approach combining acute phase proteins, cytokines, and endotoxemia markers may provide better diagnostic accuracy than relying on any single biomarker
  • •Early biomarker-based diagnosis of intestinal ischemia can enable timely intervention and significantly improve survival rates and outcomes in colic cases
  • •Clinical predictive models for horses exist and may help decision-making, particularly for colic cases, but require careful scrutiny before clinical adoption
  • •High bias risk in published models does not automatically exclude them from use, but warrants cautious interpretation and awareness of their limitations in your specific patient population
  • •Before implementing any predictive model in practice, verify how the model was validated and whether its patient population matches your case types
  • •Do not routinely recommend probiotic supplements to improve digestive efficiency or prevent common gastrointestinal conditions like colic or salmonellosis in horses
  • •Exercise caution with high-dose novel probiotic products, as they may worsen diarrhea rather than improve it
  • •Consider multistrain probiotic formulations for performance horses where improved stamina and aerobic fitness are goals, though evidence remains limited
  • •Always combine local anaesthesia with systemic NSAIDs for castration cases and continue pain relief for 3 days post-op; opioids alone are inadequate for this procedure
  • •Use phenylbutazone preferentially for laminitis and hoof pain management, but choose flunixin or firocoxib when treating colic-associated pain
  • •Monitor all horses on NSAIDs for right dorsal colitis and those on opioids for reduced locomotor activity and potential ileus
  • •Dexmedetomidine given as a preconditioning agent before large colon volvulus surgery may offer histologic protection against ischaemia-reperfusion damage and reduce mucosal injury
  • •While promising in this controlled experimental model, clinical applicability is limited; results suggest investigating postconditioning protocols may be more feasible for field colic cases
  • •This research supports further investigation of dexmedetomidine as a therapeutic intervention in suspected large colon volvulus cases, though clinical trials in actual colic cases are needed
  • •Stainless steel staples perform comparably to nylon sutures for ventral midline closure in colic surgery—either method is acceptable, so choose based on availability and surgeon preference
  • •Expect higher incisional drainage rates (~40-46%) in post-operative colic cases regardless of closure method; be especially vigilant with pregnant mares and horses with large colon lesions
  • •Surgical technique and surgeon experience appear to influence infection outcomes more than closure material itself; focus on meticulous surgical practice
  • •Consider using threshold-based deworming for mares (treating only when faecal egg counts exceed 300 epg) as an effective alternative to routine prophylactic treatments, reducing anthelmintic use and selection pressure for resistance
  • •In foals, less frequent deworming (2 treatments vs. monthly) may not adequately control ascarid populations—monthly or strategic deworming may still be warranted for young stock to manage parasite burdens and development
  • •Monitoring bodyweight and general health indicators alongside parasite control can help identify whether reduced treatment intensity is sustainable on your farm without negative clinical outcomes
  • •Both traditional and selective NSAIDs cause temporary but significant disruption to the hindgut microbiota—minimize treatment duration when possible and monitor for GI signs during and after therapy
  • •NSAID dysbiosis resolves within 2 weeks of stopping treatment, but timing matters if the horse is already at risk for colic or colitis
  • •Consider probiotic or prebiotic support during NSAID courses, particularly in horses with prior GI disease, to help maintain microbial stability
  • •Ethyl pyruvate shows promise as a potential therapeutic intervention for horses with endotoxaemia-related colic, a condition with limited current treatment options
  • •Results from rodent and swine studies suggest EP may improve survival and protect organ function, warranting clinical trials in horses
  • •This research addresses a significant gap in equine colic management, where inflammatory cascade activation drives morbidity and mortality
  • •When treating piroplasmosis with imidocarb in horses, anticipate gastrointestinal complications including colic and diarrhoea as common adverse effects
  • •Anticholinergic medications may help manage imidocarb side effects but require careful clinical monitoring to avoid paradoxical gastrointestinal motility problems
  • •Consider the risk-benefit profile of anticholinergic prophylaxis or treatment in individual cases, weighing gastrointestinal benefits against potential ileus risk
  • •Consider LMWH (dalteparin) as preferred heparin choice for colic patients requiring anticoagulation prophylaxis due to superior safety profile
  • •Monitor packed cell volume carefully in colic horses receiving UFH, as significant early decline may occur within first few days of treatment
  • •LMWH offers simpler once-daily dosing (50 iu/kg q24h) compared to UFH's variable q12h regimen, potentially improving compliance and reducing injection site problems
  • •Expect nearly half of colic surgery patients to develop post-discharge complications, primarily recurrent colic; clients should be counselled accordingly and monitored long-term.
  • •Use the EPOCS scoring system to quantify perioperative complication severity—horses with higher pre-discharge scores have significantly reduced long-term survival and warrant closer management.
  • •Focus perioperative management on minimizing complications during hospitalization, as these have stronger prognostic value than post-discharge events for long-term outcomes.
  • •Request ESR testing at admission for colic cases as part of rapid prognostic assessment—low values may indicate higher risk of deterioration or death
  • •Use ESR alongside other biomarkers to strengthen early clinical decision-making about treatment intensity and referral urgency
  • •For surgical colics, repeat ESR at 24 hours post-op to monitor systemic inflammation trajectory and recovery prognosis
  • •A novel kirkovirus is associated with farm outbreaks of enterocolitis and small colon impactions; consider this pathogen in differential diagnosis of winter/spring colitis cases
  • •The virus shows seasonal prevalence (autumn-spring) which may help guide diagnostic testing and preventive management strategies on affected farms
  • •Current evidence does not prove the virus causes disease; further research is needed before specific treatment or prevention protocols can be recommended
  • •Routinely apply postoperative abdominal bandages to horses after colic surgery, as this simple intervention reduces SSI risk by approximately 71%
  • •Accept that SSI remains a common complication affecting roughly 1 in 4 colic surgery patients, warranting diligent postoperative monitoring and wound care
  • •Be aware that single-centre data has limited generalisability; local prevalence and risk factors at your facility may differ from these findings
  • •Fecal SIgA and lactate levels can be used as non-invasive biomarkers to assess intestinal barrier integrity and immune status in colic cases, potentially aiding clinical assessment and treatment monitoring
  • •Elevated fecal SIgA indicates intestinal inflammation even in medical colic cases, supporting the need for barrier-protective and anti-inflammatory management strategies alongside standard colic treatment
  • •Serial fecal sampling over 7 days may help track mucosal recovery and guide decisions about treatment escalation or dietary changes in hospitalized colic patients
  • •Machine learning-based prognostic tools using readily available clinical data plus viscoelastic testing may help identify horses with colic at highest mortality risk earlier in treatment
  • •L-lactate concentration should remain a critical component of prognostic assessment in acute colic cases, as it provides strong predictive value across multiple model types
  • •Viscoelastic coagulation testing adds predictive value when combined with clinical variables in ML models, but coagulopathy diagnosis alone is insufficient for survival prediction and should not be used as a standalone prognostic indicator
  • •Side-to-side stapled jejunocecostomy offers faster surgical completion and larger anastomotic lumen, potentially reducing surgical time and improving long-term patency in colic cases
  • •End-to-side technique requires additional procedures to maximize lumen size and carries higher risk of ischemic complications in this protocol, though both remain clinically acceptable
  • •Neither technique showed superior postoperative pain control or recovery, so surgical choice can be based on surgeon experience and available equipment
  • •Active open barn housing reduces lameness and colic incidence, likely due to continuous free movement and exercise, offering welfare benefits despite higher wound prevalence
  • •While horses in open barns experience more wounds from social interactions, these injuries do not result in greater training loss, suggesting they are generally minor
  • •Open barn housing may be a viable alternative to single box housing for reducing serious health conditions, though injury prevention protocols around feeding and water systems should be considered
  • •Performing ventral midline colopexy during initial LCV surgery substantially reduces the risk of repeat LCV and recurrent colic episodes in breeding mares
  • •If a mare requires second surgery for LCV, performing colopexy at that point also provides significant protection against further recurrence
  • •Colopexy does not compromise foaling success, making it a safe preventive procedure for valuable broodmares with LCV
  • •Referral to surgery for colic now offers acceptable outcomes (77% survival), supporting discussion of surgical referral as treatment option for surgical colics
  • •Admission heart rate elevation in medical cases and high PCV in surgical cases are red flags suggesting guarded prognosis regardless of treatment choice
  • •Small intestinal colic surgery carries inherently worse prognosis than large intestinal surgery—use this when counseling owners on realistic expectations
  • •Referral practices experienced increased first-opinion colic cases during the pandemic as owner options became limited; ensure capacity and protocols for managing higher medical caseloads
  • •Cost barriers to colic surgery appear to be driving euthanasia decisions; discuss financial constraints early with owners and consider payment planning or triage protocols
  • •The decreasing proportion of surgical cases despite stable or increasing colic admissions suggests economic pressures are shifting treatment decisions toward medical management or euthanasia—factor this into staffing and surgical scheduling
  • •Do not rely on ABE alone as a diagnostic or prognostic tool when evaluating colic cases—continue using established clinical and laboratory assessment protocols
  • •Recognize that despite extensive research, no single blood marker exists that can definitively predict which colic cases need surgery or how they will progress, so comprehensive clinical evaluation remains essential
  • •Consider ABE as part of a broader metabolic assessment rather than a standalone decision-making tool for surgical vs. medical management
  • •Faecal dry matter, particle size, and sand content alone cannot be used as diagnostic markers to identify horses at risk of colic
  • •Standard faecal analysis parameters are insufficient to predict or prevent most types of colic; further investigation into digesta passage rates and particle composition is needed
  • •Management strategies for colic prevention cannot currently be based on routine faecal testing results, supporting the need for alternative preventative measures
  • •Assess mucous membrane colour and capillary refill time at admission as rapid prognostic indicators; pathological findings are strong predictors of poor outcome in working equids
  • •Educate owners on proper first aid and discourage traditional harmful practices (e.g., firing); early professional intervention may improve survival rates
  • •Consider early euthanasia as a welfare priority when severe clinical signs are present; nearly 1 in 4 admissions result in euthanasia, reflecting poor pre-admission conditions
  • •Measuring both blood and peritoneal lactate, along with their ratio, can help predict which colic cases are likely to die within 24 hours with >80% accuracy—use the constructed decision trees to inform client discussions about prognosis
  • •Peritoneal lactate correlates with dehydration severity, making it a useful marker alongside standard physical examination findings for assessing colic severity
  • •The BL:PL ratio appears to be a key prognostic indicator; higher ratios suggest better short-term survival prospects
  • •cfDNA measurement may help identify colic cases with systemic inflammation, but current evidence does not support its use to predict survival or differentiate colic types
  • •The portable Qubit fluorometer makes cfDNA testing potentially field-accessible, but further validation is needed before clinical adoption
  • •Use clinical SIRS criteria alongside other established prognostic indicators rather than relying on cfDNA alone at this stage
  • •Post-operative reflux in large colon volvulus cases is an important complication to monitor for, as its presence carries a grave prognosis with only 44% surviving to discharge
  • •Horses developing reflux after LCV surgery require aggressive management and owners should be counselled on significantly reduced survival odds compared to non-reflux cases
  • •Early detection and treatment protocols for post-operative reflux in LCV cases are critical, as this complication marks a major shift in prognostic outlook
  • •FLASH scanning with a portable wireless ultrasound system is feasible and practical to use during ambulatory colic examinations, enabling earlier identification of horses requiring surgical referral
  • •Abnormal FLASH findings (particularly small intestinal distension and reduced motility) may help guide triage decisions in first opinion practice and support owner discussions about prognosis and referral necessity
  • •The technique shows promise but requires further validation; practitioners should not rely on FLASH alone to rule out surgical colic, as 63% of horses survived with conservative management despite some having abnormal findings
  • •Expect complications in approximately 1 in 6 horses undergoing MRI under general anaesthesia; pyrexia, pneumonia and colic are the most likely complications to monitor for in recovery
  • •Consider peri-anaesthetic antimicrobial administration as a risk-mitigation strategy, particularly for horses at higher risk of anaesthetic complications
  • •Be alert for delayed complications including pyrexia and pneumonia in the post-operative period, as these represented the majority of complications in this cohort
  • •Do not rely on peritoneal or blood lactate levels alone to diagnose strangulation; use them alongside clinical signs (pain severity, temperature) and fluid characteristics (appearance) for better diagnostic accuracy.
  • •Serosanguineous peritoneal fluid is a strong indicator of strangulation (35× increased odds); combined with other variables, this improves early surgical decision-making.
  • •The relationship between peritoneal and blood lactate is complex and varies by lesion location, so clinicians should consider the whole clinical picture rather than any single lactate-based threshold.
  • •Colic in horses is associated with measurable shifts in gut microbial composition (lower Fibrobacter, higher Streptococcus), which may guide future diagnostic or preventive strategies targeting microbiome health
  • •Microbiome dysbiosis in colic cases shows altered metabolic pathways; nutritional or probiotic interventions aimed at restoring healthy microbial function could be investigated as adjunctive treatments
  • •Monitoring microbial diversity and key bacterial populations may eventually help identify horses at risk of colic or predict treatment response, though further research is needed to translate these findings into clinical practice
  • •Arterial blood gas analysis can help prognosticate colic cases and predict whether surgical or medical management is likely needed
  • •Ionised calcium and chloride concentrations have practical diagnostic value in differentiating colic types and predicting survival outcomes
  • •Incorporating blood gas and electrolyte analysis into colic case assessment may improve clinical decision-making regarding treatment approach and owner counselling about prognosis
  • •If you only have a rectal transducer, it will reliably detect free fluid, small intestinal problems, and colon/cecal changes—the most common findings in colic cases—but don't rely on it alone for ruling out nephrosplenic entrapment or stomach issues
  • •Consider upgrading to a low-frequency curvilinear transducer if your colic cases frequently require assessment of the kidney region or stomach, as detection rates are substantially better
  • •FLASH is practical for emergency use with either transducer type, but clinician experience and transducer limitations should inform your diagnostic interpretation
  • •When counseling owners on prognosis following colic surgery, you now have contemporary US data on 1-year survival rates and functional recovery expectations
  • •This cohort provides realistic benchmarks for return to work/breeding following surgical colic treatment at a referral center
  • •Long-term follow-up data helps inform owner decision-making about surgical intervention versus medical management
  • •When evaluating colic cases, particularly during summer months, watch for fever and elevated lactate as red flags for potential Salmonella shedding, allowing earlier implementation of isolation protocols
  • •Development of reflux or persistent fever during hospitalization for colic should heighten suspicion for Salmonella shedding and prompt appropriate biosecurity measures to protect other horses and staff
  • •Although Salmonella shedding prevalence in colic populations is relatively low (3.5%), identifying high-risk cases through clinical predictors enables targeted and effective barrier nursing without unnecessary blanket precautions
  • •Monitor PCV, TPP, and BCS carefully as these three parameters have the highest predictive value for post-colic surgery survival—use them to set realistic expectations with owners
  • •Surgical experience matters: outcomes were influenced by surgeon experience level, suggesting referral to experienced surgeons improves prognosis
  • •Preoperative and postoperative fluid management significantly affects survival; ensure appropriate fluid therapy protocols are established before and after surgery
  • •Enlarged gastric ultrasound measurements after nasogastric intubation or recent feeding do not necessarily indicate pathologic distension from colic—interpret findings in clinical context
  • •The presence of fluid in the stomach visualized on ultrasound may be a more reliable indicator of clinically significant gastric reflux than measuring gastric dimensions alone when assessing colic cases
  • •Be aware that nasogastric tube placement itself increases apparent gastric size on ultrasound, which could confound clinical assessment if not accounted for
  • •Distance to surgical facility and seasonality should be considered when assessing urgency and prognosis in acute colic cases; strangulating lesions warrant immediate referral regardless of season
  • •Older horses (>9 years) presenting with strangulating colic have significantly worse intra-operative survival outcomes and owners should be informed of increased risk during consultation
  • •The predictive models developed can guide pre-operative risk stratification and prognostic counseling using only routine clinical examination data, improving informed decision-making for owners
  • •While elevated DGGR-lipase (>2x URL) correlates with surgical disease and worse outcomes in colicky horses, it cannot be relied upon as a standalone diagnostic or screening tool due to poor sensitivity
  • •DGGR-lipase may have some prognostic value when markedly elevated (>2x URL), suggesting consideration of more aggressive treatment approaches, but normal values do not rule out serious disease
  • •This biomarker should complement, not replace, clinical examination, imaging, and other diagnostic modalities in colic assessment
  • •Renal resistive index measured via Doppler ultrasound is unlikely to be a clinically useful diagnostic tool for detecting acute kidney injury in horses, particularly in field practice settings with uncooperative animals
  • •While RRI does increase in horses with clinical AKI, the effect is subtle (lower than in other species) and asymmetrical (right kidney only), limiting its practical diagnostic value
  • •Continue to rely on conventional diagnostic approaches (clinical signs, bloodwork, urinalysis) rather than Doppler ultrasonography for detecting subclinical AKI in at-risk horses receiving gentamicin or NSAIDs
  • •For laparoscopic nephrosplenic space ablation, barbed suture offers faster surgery times and lower costs than mesh implants while maintaining comparable or better outcomes
  • •Monitor horses post-NSS ablation closely regardless of technique, as recurrent colic can occur from implant failure; barbed suture shows slightly lower failure rates in this cohort
  • •Consider barbed suture as first-line technique for NSS ablation in your colic prevention protocol due to improved efficiency and cost without increased complications
  • •Plasma PCT elevation appears useful as a biochemical indicator of colic in horses, potentially helping differentiate colicky from healthy animals
  • •PCT does not correlate with SIRS scoring criteria, so it should be interpreted alongside clinical examination and other laboratory findings rather than as a replacement for SIRS assessment
  • •Serial PCT measurements over 96 hours may help track inflammatory progression in colic cases, though clinical outcome data would strengthen its practical utility
  • •Weather folklore about barometric pressure triggering colic is not supported by evidence; practitioners can reassure owners that pressure changes alone are not a colic risk factor
  • •Seasonal patterns (fall, spring, summer) and geographic location remain relevant considerations for colic risk management in equine practice
  • •Breed and sex differences exist in colic prevalence, with mares and certain breeds (Thoroughbreds, Arabians) showing higher risk than stallions and Quarter Horses
  • •Use this validated colic scoring system as an objective decision-making aid when counselling owners about prognosis and treatment options—particularly valuable when scores exceed 7.
  • •A score >7 reliably identifies high-risk colic cases with 88% probability the horse will not survive, but scores ≤7 should not be over-interpreted as guaranteeing survival due to lower negative predictive value.
  • •The 6-variable scoring system is practical for field use and provides standardized prognostic information that complements clinical judgment and may improve communication with owners about realistic outcomes.
  • •Prolonged colic (≥60 hours) causes measurable disruption to faecal microbiota diversity; this microbiota shift may warrant targeted nutritional or probiotic support during recovery
  • •The type and location of colic lesion (large colon vs small intestine) produces different bacterial community changes, suggesting lesion-specific pathophysiology that could inform post-operative management strategies
  • •Microbiota continues to change through day 3 post-admission; monitoring and supportive care during this critical window may improve recovery outcomes
  • •The EAAPS is a feasible, rapid pain assessment tool for colic cases in referral hospitals that requires no prior training and can be learned quickly by experienced practitioners.
  • •Clinicians can confidently use the EAAPS to assess surgical colic cases, though VAS may be preferable when mortality risk stratification is the primary concern.
  • •Implementing the EAAPS standardizes subjective pain assessment across clinical teams and improves consistency of colic severity evaluation.
  • •Monitor and optimize hemodynamic status before anesthesia to minimize intraoperative tachycardia, a significant mortality risk factor
  • •Exercise caution with salbutamol use in colic surgery as it may trigger hypokalemia; consider electrolyte supplementation if salbutamol is needed
  • •Horses presenting with gastric reflux or those with greater body weight carry elevated perianesthetic mortality risk and may warrant additional perioperative monitoring and intervention
  • •Endocrine testing for PPID (ACTH and TRH stimulation) can proceed reliably in aged horses with low to moderate pain without invalidating results due to pain-induced false positives
  • •Pain management should not be delayed while awaiting endocrine test results; diagnostic testing can be performed concurrently with pain treatment in these cases
  • •Clinicians can confidently diagnose or rule out PPID using standard protocols even when horses are experiencing mild to moderate pain from colic, laminitis, or orthopedic conditions
  • •Heart rate variability analysis provides a sensitive, noninvasive method to assess stress during equine euthanasia procedures, potentially helping refine protocols
  • •Environmental factors (location, owner presence) do not significantly affect the physiological stress response during euthanasia, so standardization of these conditions is not necessary
  • •Colic cases may require modified euthanasia protocols to prevent breathing reoccurrence; further research is needed to optimize euthanasia in this population
  • •HRV and cortisol measurements may help differentiate horses likely to respond to treatment from those with poor prognoses, potentially informing early treatment decisions
  • •Monitoring changes in heart rate variability parameters over the first 24-48 hours could provide objective physiological markers of treatment response in colic cases
  • •While HRV analysis shows potential clinical utility, practitioners should not rely on it as the sole diagnostic tool—further research is needed before implementing in routine colic assessment protocols
  • •High helminth seroprevalence (32.3% for S. vulgaris, 10.7% for A. perfoliata) warrants continued consistent worm control programs despite lack of direct association with colic in this population
  • •Recent anthelmintic treatment correlates with increased colic risk—consider timing of worming and monitor for adverse effects in the week following treatment
  • •Copromicroscopy alone may underestimate true helminth exposure; serological testing provides additional diagnostic value for epidemiological understanding
  • •Source of horse purchase (Europe vs Ireland) appears to be a significant risk factor for colic susceptibility—consider this in acquisition and pre-purchase assessment protocols
  • •Despite strict military management regimens, colic rates remain comparable to general populations, suggesting that other intrinsic or pre-existing factors (possibly related to previous management or genetics) may outweigh standardized management practices
  • •One-third of horses that colic once will colic again—implement focused monitoring and preventive management for horses with colic history, as most episodes are managed medically rather than surgically
  • •Initiate forage feeding earlier in the postoperative period; horses that recovered faster consumed forage sooner and achieved minimum dry matter intake more rapidly
  • •Early feeding appears to be a modifiable factor associated with shorter hospitalization—consider early introduction of high-quality forage as part of postoperative colic recovery protocols
  • •Preoperative condition and immediate postoperative clinical parameters are not reliable predictors of recovery length; focus management strategies on the nutritional phase instead
  • •Group housing significantly reduces respiratory disease and colic risk compared to tie-stall systems—consider transitioning riding schools where feasible
  • •Tack-related skin injuries are more common in confined housing; implement regular saddle fitting checks and skin inspections, especially in tie-stall facilities
  • •Implement independent feeding assessments at riding schools since 25-32% of horses are overweight despite appearing healthy—this impacts soundness and longevity
  • •NSAID prescription patterns vary substantially by country, suggesting that individual practitioner preference and practice policy significantly influence drug choice rather than uniform evidence-based guidelines
  • •Phenylbutazone and flunixin meglumine remain the default choices in equine practice; if considering alternatives, understand that adoption of other NSAIDs remains limited despite their availability
  • •Off-label phenylbutazone use in colic cases occurs regularly despite licensing restrictions—discuss appropriate NSAID selection for each condition type with your veterinarian
  • •Colic in horses is associated with dysbiosis (reduced bacterial diversity and altered microbial composition), suggesting microbiota analysis may help understand colic pathophysiology
  • •Loss of beneficial commensal bacteria and overgrowth of potentially pathogenic organisms in colic cases suggests microbiota modulation (probiotics, prebiotics) could be investigated as therapeutic targets
  • •Faecal microbiota profiling could potentially become a diagnostic or prognostic tool for colic, though larger studies across different colic types are needed before clinical application
  • •Use peritoneal CK measurement (≥16 IU/L) as a sensitive screening tool to rapidly identify horses likely to have strangulating colic requiring emergency surgery
  • •Combine peritoneal CK with lactate measurement for complementary diagnostic value—CK catches more cases (95% sensitive) while lactate provides stronger specificity (92%) to reduce false positives
  • •A normal peritoneal CK level has high reassurance value (97% NPV) for ruling out strangulating lesions, potentially avoiding unnecessary surgery in borderline cases
  • •Consider abdominal sand accumulation as a differential diagnosis in horses presenting with multiple signs including colic, poor performance, diarrhea, and abdominal sensitivity—radiography can confirm diagnosis
  • •Management and feeding behavior significantly influence sand accumulation risk; greedy eaters and subordinate horses in groups warrant closer monitoring in sand-prone geographic areas
  • •The nonspecific nature of clinical signs means sand accumulation should be on the differential list for performance problems and gastrointestinal complaints, not just overt colic cases
  • •Consider implementing a structured 4-week core abdominal rehabilitation program for performance horses recovering from colic surgery to potentially accelerate return to work and training
  • •CARE protocol appears safe with no reported complications when properly administered, making it a low-risk adjunct to post-operative recovery management
  • •Horses undergoing CARE showed dramatically higher rates of performance improvement (81% vs 7.8%), suggesting this rehabilitation approach has substantial practical value for maintaining or restoring athletic function
  • •Approximately 1 in 10 horses admitted to teaching hospitals carry multi-drug resistant E. coli in faeces, requiring strict isolation protocols and enhanced biosecurity measures to protect other patients and staff
  • •Standard antibiotic choices may be ineffective for infections in horses carrying these resistant strains; culture and sensitivity testing should guide treatment decisions for clinical infections
  • •Veterinary staff should implement enhanced personal protective equipment and hygiene procedures when handling horses with colic or open wounds, as respiratory and wound carriage rates remain clinically significant
  • •Don't automatically operate based on sand quantity alone—assess gas patterns on radiographs and perform thorough transrectal exams to guide medical vs surgical decisions
  • •Medical management can be expected to succeed in ~95% of cases, making it reasonable first-line therapy for uncomplicated sand accumulations
  • •Monitor for diarrhea post-treatment but don't assume Salmonella involvement; most cases resolve without antimicrobial escalation
  • •When counselling owners about relaparotomy for post-operative complications, survival outcomes vary significantly by complication type (0-53%), with septic peritonitis carrying extremely poor prognosis and persistent colic being more favourable
  • •Elevated packed cell volume and peritonitis at the time of considering relaparotomy are poor prognostic indicators; these findings should inform clinical decision-making about whether to proceed with surgery
  • •Horses presenting with simple persistent colic signs for relaparotomy have considerably better survival prospects than those with peritonitis or adhesions, helping guide realistic outcome discussions with owners
  • •Owner observations of laminitis are reliable enough to include in epidemiological research; when owners suspect laminitis, they are likely correct, making owner reports valuable for disease surveillance.
  • •Almost half of veterinary laminitis cases go unrecognised by owners, suggesting many horses receive delayed treatment—targeted owner education about early laminitis signs (especially divergent growth rings and hoof heat) could improve early detection and outcomes.
  • •Farriers and veterinarians should communicate more clearly with owners about laminitis risk factors and clinical signs, as owners tend to attribute laminitis to other conditions like foot abscesses or undefined lameness, delaying appropriate management.
  • •Over half of working horses in this population experienced colic annually — dental health surveillance should be a priority, as severe dental disease carries nearly 7-fold increased risk
  • •Monitor dietary changes seasonally; ground corn in dry season increased colic risk while rice bran in green season was protective, suggesting forage quality and feed composition matter significantly
  • •Stereotypic behaviours and recent deworming were associated with colic history; reconsider blanket anthelmintic protocols and investigate underlying causes of stereotypies
  • •Minimize incision length to only what is necessary for safe abdominal exploration and bowel manipulation, as incisions >27 cm substantially increase infection risk
  • •Be aware that certain breeds (Warmbloods, American breeds, Thoroughbreds) appear predisposed to SSI and may require enhanced preventive measures
  • •Manage postoperative colic aggressively as it significantly increases SSI risk, likely through increased incisional contamination and trauma
  • •Nephrosplenic entrapment has a good prognosis with 91% short-term survival; horses that survive to discharge have excellent long-term outcomes (97% alive at 1+ year)
  • •Horses presenting with concurrent abdominal lesions alongside NSE warrant more guarded prognosis and closer monitoring for complications
  • •Laparoscopic closure of the nephrosplenic space significantly reduces colic recurrence rates and should be considered to prevent repeat episodes
  • •Portable lactate analyzers are viable field alternatives for colic assessment, but choose devices carefully—Lactate Pro is most reliable for peritoneal fluid while Lactate Plus is best for blood samples
  • •Be aware that different analyzers may give different results, particularly at higher lactate concentrations, so avoid directly comparing values or cutoffs from studies using different devices
  • •Portable analyzers are most trustworthy at lower lactate concentrations; use extra caution interpreting moderately elevated readings, especially for blood samples, and consider bench-top confirmation if results will significantly alter clinical decisions
  • •Measure acute phase proteins (SAA, haptoglobin, ferritin) alongside standard clinicopathological parameters on admission to gain insights into colic pathogenesis and potential complications
  • •Low haptoglobin and elevated ferritin suggest haemolysis or muscle damage and may indicate poorer prognosis; use these patterns to help risk-stratify cases
  • •Serum creatinine remains the most reliable predictor of mortality; prioritize this marker in prognostic assessment alongside APP patterns
  • •Age alone (geriatric vs. mature) should not be used as a primary factor in deciding whether to proceed with colic surgery, as post-operative outcomes are comparable between groups
  • •Monitor geriatric horses more closely for postoperative reflux and inappetence, though these complications do not appear to worsen survival
  • •Be aware that geriatric horses may present more frequently with strangulating small intestinal lesions, which may influence surgical decision-making and case selection
  • •Early referral and prompt surgical treatment are critical—each hour of delay before admission reduces survival chances in mares with large colon volvulus
  • •Monitor packed cell volume, intra-operative blood pressure stability, and post-operative heart rate and digestive function as indicators of prognosis and complications
  • •Communicate to owners that mares with large colon volvulus have good overall prognosis (88% survival) when treated surgically, but outcomes depend heavily on time from onset of colic to surgery
  • •Using a systematic viability assessment method during colic surgery can eliminate the need for small intestinal resection in many cases, reducing costs and complications
  • •Early surgical referral is critical—these non-resection cases showed excellent long-term outcomes, suggesting referral before intestinal damage becomes irreversible improves prognosis
  • •Most horses (31%) will develop post-operative complications but typically respond well to conservative management like decompression; only 8.6% required repeat surgery
  • •A serum cortisol measurement ≥200 nmol/L in a colic horse may help identify cases with more severe systemic involvement and support clinical decision-making regarding treatment intensity
  • •Elevated cortisol combined with tachycardia (>45 bpm) suggests more severe disease requiring aggressive management; however, cortisol should complement rather than replace clinical assessment
  • •Wide individual variation in cortisol response means a single measurement should not be used in isolation for prognosis—serial measurements or combination with other clinical parameters may be more valuable
  • •Be aware that IFEE is an increasingly common cause of colic requiring surgery; maintain high clinical suspicion in horses presenting with acute abdominal pain
  • •Geographic location and seasonal/temporal patterns may influence IFEE risk in your area—track local case frequencies to inform diagnostic and management decisions
  • •Age-related risk variations suggest younger or older horses may need different monitoring protocols; collaborate with your veterinarian to establish farm-specific risk profiles
  • •First-opinion practitioners can now reference evidence-based clinical features and diagnostic findings typical of large colon impaction cases at initial assessment
  • •The study documents current treatment approaches used in practice, helping identify best practices and variations in management of this common colic type
  • •Understanding the typical presentation and diagnostic pathway helps practitioners recognize and assess large colon impaction cases more confidently in their own practice
  • •Horses that crib-bite or windsuck should be monitored closely for signs of colic, as they have elevated risk
  • •Owners and practitioners should implement preventive management strategies for CBWS horses to reduce colic incidence
  • •Early intervention in horses with stereotypic behaviours may help reduce downstream gastrointestinal complications
  • •Medical management alone is effective for uncomplicated sand enteropathy in mature horses, with good survival rates and radiographic improvement in half of cases
  • •Use serial abdominal radiography to monitor sand clearance and treatment response in medically managed cases
  • •Horses showing persistent colic signs despite medical treatment should be referred promptly for exploratory surgery, as concurrent gastrointestinal lesions are likely present
  • •Use of a stent bandage on incisions following colic surgery significantly reduces infection risk from ~22% to ~3%, making it a practical and evidence-based recommendation for post-operative care
  • •Implementation of stent bandage protocols should be considered standard practice for ventral midline coeliotomies in colic cases to improve surgical outcomes
  • •This simple, non-invasive intervention provides substantial clinical benefit with minimal cost or complexity in post-operative management
  • •Early recognition of equine neorickettsiosis severity through bloodwork (hemoglobin, electrolytes, azotemia) helps identify high-risk non-survivors; treat promptly with oxytetracycline
  • •Expect laminitis in roughly one-third of cases, often affecting all four feet simultaneously—implement preventive farriery and intensive laminitis management protocols immediately upon diagnosis
  • •Monitor electrolyte balance and hydration status closely during hospitalization, as electrolyte loss and hemoconcentration are markers of severe colitis and poor prognosis
  • •Do not interpret elevated blood lactate concentrations in ponies and miniature horses with colic the same way as in large breed horses—breed-specific reference ranges may be needed to avoid false suspicion of surgical lesions or poor prognosis
  • •Ponies with GI disease consistently show higher vital signs (respiratory rate, temperature) and higher lactate levels as normal variants; use these as context when assessing colic severity and treatment decisions
  • •Blood lactate concentration alone is less predictive of outcome in ponies compared to horses, so rely on additional clinical and diagnostic parameters when determining whether surgery is indicated
  • •Monitor postoperative leukocyte counts between 28-60 hours post-colic surgery; counts ≤3.9×10³/mm³ suggest increased mortality risk and warrant closer observation or intervention
  • •Use leukocyte trends as a supplementary prognostic tool in combination with existing clinical indicators to improve outcome prediction
  • •Early detection of abnormally low leukocyte counts may help identify high-risk horses for more intensive postoperative management
  • •SAA and fibrinogen testing can help rule out non-inflammatory colics (e.g., obstruction) in suspected EGS cases, but cannot definitively diagnose EGS or differentiate it from other inflammatory abdominal conditions
  • •Elevated acute phase proteins in a colic case should prompt investigation for inflammatory causes including EGS, peritonitis, and enteritis rather than assuming simple obstruction
  • •Activin A elevation in clinically normal co-grazing horses warrants monitoring, as it may indicate subclinical EGS exposure and risk of disease development
  • •Counsel owners that approximately 2 in 3 horses will return to work by 6 months and 3 in 4 by one year, but only about half will match preoperative performance levels early on
  • •Horses with previous colic surgery, orthopaedic conditions requiring stall rest, or those developing post-operative complications (hernia, diarrhoea, laminitis) have significantly reduced return-to-use prospects and require modified expectations
  • •Implement targeted rehabilitation protocols and early intervention for post-operative complications (especially incisional hernioplasty) to optimize functional recovery outcomes
  • •Clinical signs alone are unreliable for diagnosing endotoxaemia in colic cases—actual LPS detection occurs in less than one-third of colicky horses despite higher suspicion rates, so laboratory confirmation should guide treatment decisions
  • •Detectable plasma endotoxin is a significant mortality predictor; horses with positive LPS results warrant intensive monitoring and aggressive supportive care
  • •Packed cell volume elevation alongside colic may indicate endotoxaemia; combining clinical assessment with LPS testing and PCV monitoring improves prognostic accuracy
  • •Peritoneal D-lactate measurement is useful for identifying strangulating obstructions with high sensitivity—a negative result makes strangulation less likely but cannot rule it out entirely
  • •Elevated peritoneal D-lactate is strongly associated with poor prognosis; use alongside other clinical indicators to guide urgency of surgical intervention
  • •D-lactate can be measured from abdominocentesis fluid, making it a practical adjunct diagnostic tool available during the colic workup without additional invasive procedures
  • •Faecal C. perfringens ELISA testing may help differentiate EGS from colic cases in clinical practice, particularly as a rule-in tool due to high specificity, but negative results do not exclude EGS
  • •The strong association between C. perfringens and EGS suggests this pathogen may play a role in disease pathogenesis and warrants further investigation into its contribution to neuromuscular dysfunction
  • •While ELISA is more practical than culture for clinical settings, the moderate sensitivity means it should be used alongside clinical signs and other diagnostic methods rather than as a standalone test
  • •Geriatric horses presenting with colic have reduced overall survival; medical management outcomes are notably worse than surgical intervention, suggesting earlier surgical referral should be considered
  • •Age ≥20 years is a critical threshold with substantially lower post-surgical survival (53%), warranting careful prognostic counselling and owner discussions before surgery
  • •Large colon simple obstructions in geriatric horses carry higher mortality risk than in younger horses; strangulating lesions and jejunojejunostomy cases have comparable outcomes between age groups
  • •Geriatric horses presenting with colic may have different clinical severity profiles at admission compared to younger mature horses, which could influence surgical decision-making and prognosis counseling
  • •Understanding age-related differences in colic presentation and laboratory values helps inform risk stratification for older horses
  • •Clinical and laboratory data at admission may be predictive markers for outcome differences between age groups in colic cases
  • •Perform rapid clinical assessment of CRT and mucous membrane colour at presentation to provide immediate prognostic guidance to horse owners regarding likelihood of survival
  • •Strangulating intestinal lesions carry significantly higher mortality (60%) than nonstrangulating (18%), and small intestinal lesions are worse than large intestinal; use these facts when counselling clients on treatment options and likely outcomes
  • •Medical management alone achieves 93% survival rate but surgical cases average 34% mortality; help clients understand these baseline expectations differ substantially between treatment approaches
  • •Minor blood contamination during peritoneal tap collection does not invalidate D-Dimer results in colic cases—interpret findings with confidence using standard cut-off values
  • •Only severe contamination (≥20% blood) causes measurable quantitative changes, which is unlikely to occur in routine clinical practice
  • •Clinical decision-making based on peritoneal D-Dimer concentration remains reliable even with imperfect fluid collection technique
  • •Understanding the temporal kinetics of inflammatory cytokine expression helps interpret clinical responses to endotoxaemia in colic cases
  • •Different cytokines have different peak expression times and recovery periods, which may inform the window for therapeutic intervention in endotoxic horses
  • •IL-1β and IL-6 sustained elevation may be particularly important monitoring targets in managing horses with endotoxaemic episodes
  • •Peritoneal D-dimer testing can help clinicians assess fibrinolytic activity and severity of peritoneal involvement in colic cases, potentially aiding prognosis
  • •Elevated peritoneal D-dimer combined with altered peritoneal fluid analysis suggests more severe GI disease (peritonitis, enteritis, ischemia) requiring aggressive intervention
  • •D-dimer measurement may help identify high-risk cases with poor outcomes, allowing for early discussion of treatment options and prognosis with owners
  • •Blood glucose measurement at admission to horses with acute colic provides prognostic information; elevated glucose (especially >195 mg/dL) indicates worse survival odds independent of diagnosis
  • •Hyperglycemia in colic cases should be viewed as a negative prognostic indicator and may help guide decisions about treatment intensity and client communication regarding prognosis
  • •Glucose testing is a simple, cost-effective diagnostic aid in acute gastrointestinal disease that should be incorporated into initial assessment protocols
  • •Regular dental examinations and treatment in donkeys are critical preventive health measures that reduce systemic disease risk and improve welfare outcomes
  • •Early intervention in dental disorders prevents cascade effects where one dental problem promotes development of multiple other abnormalities
  • •Donkeys presenting with weight loss, poor condition, or colic history should receive comprehensive dental evaluation as dental disease is a significant contributing factor
  • •Colic remains a significant health and financial concern, affecting approximately 1 in 110 insured horses annually with substantial mortality; practitioners should maintain high clinical suspicion and rapid diagnostic protocols
  • •One-quarter of colic cases result in euthanasia or death within one month, emphasizing the importance of early intervention and owner education about recognizing abdominal pain signs
  • •Insurance data reveals considerable cost burden; practitioners should discuss colic risk, prevention strategies, and financial implications with owners during routine health consultations, with particular attention to high-risk age groups and seasons
  • •Horses with crib-biting or windsucking behaviour require closer monitoring for colic signs, particularly during high-stabling periods, as they face significantly elevated EFE risk
  • •Ensure previously colicky horses have adequate turnout and turnout time, as increased stabling duration is a modifiable risk factor for EFE
  • •Consider management modifications such as providing mineral/salt licks and maintaining consistent feeding routines across the group, which may reduce EFE risk
  • •Aged donkeys require routine prophylactic dental examinations and treatments, as 93% have significant dental pathology that may be clinically silent
  • •Cheek teeth diastemata should be recognized as a marker for multiple concurrent dental problems and as a risk factor for colic; affected donkeys warrant enhanced monitoring and management
  • •Regular dental care in older donkeys may reduce colic risk and improve welfare outcomes in this vulnerable population
  • •Peritoneal fluid lactate measurement is more prognostically valuable than blood lactate in colic cases—prioritize PFL sampling when available
  • •PFL concentrations can guide clinical decision-making: values >6 mM warrant aggressive intervention and guarded prognosis discussions with owners
  • •The Accusport analyzer is reliable for field or clinic use up to 13 mM (BPL) and 20 mM (PFL), making it practical for rapid prognostic assessment in colic cases
  • •Monitor hospitalized horses for signs of endotoxemia, particularly those with gastrointestinal or respiratory disease, as early recognition and treatment may prevent secondary laminitis development.
  • •Include laminitis prevention protocols when treating conditions associated with endotoxemia (diarrhea, colic surgery, pneumonia) in hospitalized horses.
  • •Consider laminitis risk assessment as part of routine monitoring in hospitalized horses, especially those showing evidence of systemic inflammation or gastrointestinal compromise.
  • •Counsel owners that horses requiring jejunocaecal anastomosis have worse long-term survival outcomes than those requiring jejunojejunal anastomosis; discuss realistic prognosis pre-operatively
  • •Monitor post-operative jejunocaecal anastomosis cases closely for colic recurrence, which occurs more frequently than after jejunojejunal anastomosis
  • •Choose between handsewn and stapled jejunocaecal anastomosis methods based on surgeon preference and experience, as outcomes are equivalent
  • •Measure plasma lactate preoperatively in horses with suspected ascending colon volvulus—a value <6.0 mmol/L is a favorable prognostic indicator for survival with 84% accuracy
  • •High lactate (>9.5 mmol/L) suggests extensive colonic damage and poor viability, helping inform surgical decision-making and owner counseling on realistic survival odds
  • •Use lactate concentration alongside clinical signs and imaging to guide urgency of intervention and predict need for extensive resection or euthanasia
  • •Pre-operative cardiovascular status (heart rate and PCV) is a strong predictor of intra-operative mortality in surgical colic cases—assess these parameters carefully before committing to surgery
  • •Age and breed significantly influence post-operative survival; older horses and certain breeds (Draught, Thoroughbred types) carry higher risk and may require more intensive post-operative monitoring
  • •Anaesthetic choice itself appears less critical than other factors; focus on optimising cardiovascular stability and pain management rather than selecting specific anaesthetic agents
  • •When counselling owners before colic surgery, advise that approximately 1 in 10 horses may require urgent re-surgery, with poor long-term prognosis (22% survival)
  • •Relaparotomy should be considered for persistent post-operative pain, ileus, peritonitis, or wound breakdown, but owners must understand high complication and recurrence rates
  • •Horses surviving relaparotomy require intensive post-operative monitoring and management, as nearly 40% will need further surgical intervention for recurrent colic
  • •Epiploic foramen entrapment carries a significantly better surgical prognosis (95% discharge rate) than other small intestinal strangulating conditions, which should inform owner counseling and treatment decisions
  • •Ileal involvement is more frequent in epiploic foramen entrapment cases but does not necessarily worsen outcome, suggesting careful case-by-case assessment of viability rather than location-based prognosis
  • •Surgeons should focus on improving jejunocaecostomy techniques and developing better methods for assessing bowel viability to optimize outcomes and avoid unnecessary resection
  • •Expect post-operative complications in approximately 3 out of 4 colic surgery cases; pain management and incisional monitoring should be standard post-op protocols
  • •Type and location of obstruction influence complication risk—small bowel and ischaemic cases warrant more intensive post-operative monitoring and shock management
  • •Surgical technique modifications may reduce complications: consider incise drapes for wound recovery protection and avoid stent bandages if alternatives are available
  • •Use analgesic response as a clinical indicator: horses that fail to respond adequately to initial pain relief or experience pain recurrence after treatment should be considered for surgical evaluation
  • •Monitor pain severity at first examination and intestinal motility—these are more predictive of surgical need than rectal examination findings alone
  • •Document pain response patterns carefully; need for a second analgesic treatment is a significant red flag for abdominal surgery requirement
  • •Fetlock arthritis and undefined lameness dominate equine disease presentation; focus diagnostic and preventive efforts on joint health and specific fetlock assessment.
  • •Geldings show higher disease susceptibility in joint and skeletal systems—consider sex-specific management and monitoring protocols.
  • •Locomotor conditions account for a large proportion of insurable morbidity; early intervention in joint disease may reduce insurance claims and improve horse welfare.
  • •Peritoneal fluid lactate measurement provides a clinically useful tool for early identification of intestinal ischaemia in colic cases, helping prioritize surgical intervention
  • •Different types of intestinal lesions show distinct lactate patterns, allowing better prognostication and treatment planning
  • •Incorporating lactate analysis into your colic workup may help distinguish ischaemic from non-ischaemic cases before irreversible damage occurs
  • •Surgical intervention for colic can be life-saving in select cases; this data helps counsel owners on realistic expectations for short-term survival
  • •Understanding factors affecting surgical outcomes enables better case selection and more informed pre-operative discussions with clients
  • •Baseline survival data from larger cohorts improves confidence in recommending surgery as treatment option for individual cases
  • •Feeding larger meals may paradoxically increase absolute gastric emptying rate, but smaller, lower-starch meals empty proportionally faster—consider meal composition alongside size when designing feeding strategies to reduce colic risk
  • •High-starch meals delay proportional gastric emptying compared to low-starch alternatives; feeding practices emphasizing smaller, more frequent, lower-starch meals may help mitigate gastric dysfunction and associated colic
  • •Individual meal composition (starch content) has measurable effects on gastric function; practitioners should consider this when advising on feeding management for colic-prone horses
  • •Spectrophotometric analysis of peritoneal fluid haemoglobin provides an objective, quantitative method to help differentiate medical from surgical colic cases with good sensitivity (80%) and specificity (82%), outperforming subjective visual colour assessment
  • •A peritoneal fluid haemoglobin threshold of 0.01 mmol/l can serve as a useful diagnostic cutoff to guide treatment selection decisions in colic cases presenting to referral hospitals
  • •While visual assessment has high specificity (95%), its poor sensitivity (51%) means many surgical cases would be missed clinically—spectrophotometry is a more reliable diagnostic aid when available
  • •Consider alternative hay sources to Coastal Bermuda grass in regions where ileal impaction is prevalent, or ensure high-quality Coastal Bermuda hay is being fed
  • •Establish a routine tapeworm control programme using pyrantel-based anthelmintics (administer at least every 3 months) to reduce impaction risk
  • •Screen horses presenting with colic for history of Coastal Bermuda hay feeding and recent anthelmintic administration to identify high-risk cases
  • •Earlier surgical intervention for colic cases (shorter time from onset to surgery) improves long-term survival outcomes, reinforcing the importance of prompt referral
  • •Epiploic foramen entrapment carries a worse prognosis than other colic types; owners should be counselled accordingly about reduced long-term survival expectations
  • •Elevated PCV and extensive intestinal resection are negative prognostic indicators; these factors should inform realistic discussions with owners about postoperative survival prospects
  • •Reference ranges for ionised calcium in heparinised blood for normal horses are established (1.43–1.75 mmol/l), useful for clinical laboratories assessing calcium status in colic and diarrhoea cases
  • •Heparinised blood samples are stable for ionised calcium analysis over extended storage periods, allowing flexibility in sample handling and transport to reference laboratories
  • •A validated pH-adjustment formula is now available to standardize ionised calcium results to pH 7.4, improving comparability of results across different disease states and clinical settings
  • •Expect colic to occur in approximately 1 in 17 horses annually on Thoroughbred training premises, with higher mortality (6.2%) than commonly assumed, requiring robust management protocols
  • •Implement targeted management strategies during spring and autumn peaks, with different risk profiles between Flat and National Hunt operations requiring discipline-specific approaches
  • •Larger premises demonstrate protective effects against colic incidence—consider consolidation benefits or shared management practices; combined training/breeding and owner-managed facilities show protective patterns worth investigating for best practice
  • •Gastric ulceration is a longstanding condition in horse populations with breed predisposition; Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds warrant closer monitoring for ulcer-related clinical signs
  • •Colic presentation may indicate concurrent gastric ulceration; investigation and preventative management should be considered in susceptible breeds
  • •Multiple ulcers and concurrent lesions in other organs are common findings, suggesting gastric ulceration should prompt assessment for systemic or multifocal disease
  • •Be aware that splenic nodules in horses may represent nodular hyperplasia, which carries a risk of rupture and life-threatening haemoperitoneum similar to what occurs in dogs
  • •Splenic nodular hyperplasia should be added to your differential diagnosis list when evaluating incidental splenic masses on ultrasound or postmortem examination
  • •Horses with splenic nodular hyperplasia may present with acute colic or collapse; consider this condition in aged horses presenting with unexplained haemoperitoneum
  • •Current peritoneal fluid diagnostic tests for colic prognosis are unreliable; this proteomic analysis may identify better objective markers to predict post-operative complications
  • •Specific protein signatures in peritoneal fluid could help differentiate ischemic from non-ischemic colic lesions, potentially improving clinical decision-making and surgical planning
  • •These protein findings may eventually enable development of a diagnostic test to identify high-risk colic cases before post-operative deterioration occurs
  • •Horse owners should be informed that referral colic treatment costs often exceed maximum insurance cover; discuss realistic financial expectations and payment options during pre-treatment consultations
  • •Review insurance policies with clients, as premium increases outpace inflation while actual cover has stagnated or decreased in real terms—recommend adequate coverage before colic occurs
  • •Help clients understand that insurance documents are difficult to read; encourage them to ask insurers for plain-language explanations of policy limits, exclusions, and what their premium actually covers
  • •Medical management with appropriate analgesics, antispasmodics, and supportive care is the most effective first-line treatment for colic in your practice
  • •Reserve surgical intervention for cases that fail to respond to medical management, as surgery alone shows poor outcomes without concurrent medical support
  • •Implement comprehensive fluid therapy combined with antibiotic coverage alongside pain management and antispasmodic drugs for best results
  • •Pedunculated lipomas should be considered in the differential diagnosis for colic cases, particularly strangulation-type colics, even when the anatomical presentation is atypical
  • •Multiple pedunculated lipomas may be present in a single horse, so thorough surgical exploration and careful assessment of all mesenteric structures is warranted
  • •Early recognition and surgical intervention remain critical, though prognosis depends on extent of intestinal devitalisation; this case demonstrates that even successful surgical relief may not prevent fatal outcomes if ischaemic damage is severe
  • •If your anaesthetised colic horse develops ventricular bigeminy, lidocaine boluses (1 mg/kg IV) followed by infusion (1–2 mg/kg/h) can effectively restore normal rhythm without necessarily compromising recovery
  • •Post-colic cardiac arrhythmias should prompt postoperative cardiac assessment rather than assuming they will resolve with endotoxaemia treatment alone
  • •Haemodynamic stability during an arrhythmia episode does not guarantee safety—continue monitoring and be prepared to treat
  • •Ovarian tumors should be considered as a differential diagnosis in mares presenting with colic, even though they are uncommon; diagnostic laparotomy may reveal incidental neoplasia.
  • •Definitive diagnosis of ovarian fibrothecoma requires histopathology—imaging and clinical signs alone are insufficient for differentiation from other stromal tumors.
  • •Ovariectomy is an effective treatment option for symptomatic ovarian fibrothecoma in mares and can resolve associated colic symptoms.
  • •When horses or ponies present with colic signs unresponsive to medical treatment and large colon displacement or volvulus is suspected, consider that a small colon faecalith may be the underlying cause—this diagnosis is easily missed on ultrasound and rectal exam
  • •Small colon obstruction from faecaliths can trigger secondary large colon tympany and displacement; suspect this cascade when pre-operative diagnostics suggest only large colon pathology
  • •Be prepared to find incidental small colon faecaliths during exploratory surgery for large colon colic cases, as this combination appears more common than previously reported in literature
  • •Early presentation (within 10 hours of colic onset) dramatically improves survival—owner education about rapid transport to surgical facilities is critical
  • •Suspect concurrent intestinal volvulus in any draft breed with inguinal hernia, as this complication significantly worsens prognosis
  • •Castration is the most reliable prevention method for recurrence (used in 68% of cases with only 11% recurrence), making it the standard recommendation for stallions and geldings with AIH
  • •Always perform detailed visual and tactile inspection of endotracheal tubes before use, looking for lacerations, perforations, or other damage that could compromise cuff seal.
  • •If an unexplained gas leak occurs during IPPV despite cuff inflation, consider ETT structural defects as a differential diagnosis and attempt to reposition or straighten the tube.
  • •Dental trauma during intubation or recovery can cause delayed ETT damage; document any traumatic intubation events for future reference.
  • •Consider lymphomatosis in differential diagnosis for horses presenting with refractory colic, abdominal distention, and ascites, particularly when accompanied by peritoneal fluid abnormalities
  • •Peritoneal fluid cytology can provide ante-mortem diagnosis of lymphoma and may help guide humane treatment decisions
  • •Lymphomatosis presenting as peritoneal disease carries a poor prognosis in equine patients
  • •Magnesium sulfate should be considered as a treatment option for sustained ventricular tachycardia in horses when lidocaine alone is insufficient, particularly in colic cases
  • •Multiple boluses of magnesium sulfate administered over several hours may be necessary to achieve conversion to normal sinus rhythm
  • •Sustained ventricular tachycardia can occur secondary to gastrointestinal disease and should prompt both cardiac and abdominal investigation
  • •Emergency laparotomy in donkeys carries substantial risk with only 54.5% surviving to discharge; clinicians should have realistic prognostic conversations with owners and consider this lower survival compared to equine colic surgery.
  • •Donkeys presenting with abdominal disease may not exhibit typical colic signs—46.9% presented with non-specific complaints—so maintain high clinical suspicion in donkeys with vague presenting signs.
  • •Post-operative hyperlipaemia is a major complication occurring in nearly 43% of surgical cases; aggressive metabolic support and nutritional management in the perioperative period is critical for donkey survival.
  • •NSAIDs are frequently overdosed in horses with RDC; verify dosing protocols and monitor serum albumin concentrations during prolonged NSAID therapy to detect early protein loss
  • •Horses presenting with elevated heart rate, high packed cell volume, or abnormal mucous membranes have significantly worse prognosis; consider early aggressive intervention and close monitoring in these cases
  • •RDC carries substantial mortality risk (43%); maintain high clinical suspicion in horses with diarrhea, colic, and hypoproteinemia that test negative for infectious causes
  • •Standing flank laparotomy is a viable alternative to general anaesthesia for selected colic cases, avoiding risks of recovery and reducing costs, though it requires careful case selection and patient tolerance
  • •This approach works well for simple enterotomies and selected large colon cases, but peritoneal diseases and extensive lesions should be referred for ventral midline laparotomy
  • •Ensure adequate regional analgesia and peritoneal infiltration during standing flank procedures to prevent intolerance and exploration complications, particularly in ponies
  • •Prepare geriatric horse owners for the likelihood of euthanasia decisions, particularly related to colic, lameness, and age-related decline rather than expecting natural death
  • •PPID management should focus on maintaining welfare and quality of life rather than extending lifespan, as treatment alone does not increase longevity in geriatric horses
  • •Implement proactive management strategies for lameness and colic prevention in horses over 15 years, as these are leading causes of euthanasia decisions
  • •This proof-of-concept technique could eventually enable real-time tracking of colon position in clinical cases, helping diagnose displacement and volvulus without repeated rectal exams
  • •The high detection rate (91.7%) suggests subserosal microchip implantation is safe and reliable, potentially offering a future diagnostic tool for colic cases
  • •Further research is needed to determine if this technology could be implemented clinically to improve outcomes for large colon displacement cases, which are a leading cause of equine colic surgery
  • •Early differentiation between idiopathic peritonitis and NSII is critical—idiopathic cases respond to medical management while NSII requires surgical intervention and carries poor prognosis
  • •Monitor clinical and laboratory parameters carefully in peritonitis cases to guide treatment decisions and provide accurate prognostic counselling to owners
  • •Consider S. vulgaris as a potential underlying cause of NSII in horses, particularly in regions with documented increased prevalence; selective deworming protocols may need reassessment
  • •Pararectal abscesses require aggressive combined medical-surgical management including drainage, lavage, and culture-directed antibiotics to prevent rupture and septic peritonitis
  • •Standing surgical procedures (drainage, laparoscopy) can be performed safely with epidural anesthesia, allowing comprehensive diagnosis and treatment without general anesthesia risks
  • •Regular monitoring with rectal examination, CBC, fibrinogen, serum amyloid A, and ultrasound is essential to track abscess resolution and guide treatment adjustments
  • •Nasogastric tube fragmentation is a potential complication that can cause delayed colic; account for tube integrity when removing tubes and consider this differential in recurrent colic cases
  • •Exploratory surgery can effectively resolve impaction caused by nasogastric tube fragments when medical management fails
  • •Ensure proper nasogastric tube handling and removal protocols to minimize fragmentation risk in horses with recurrent colic or gastric ulcers
  • •A. perfoliata infection alters the intestinal microbiome composition in ways that may contribute to colic risk; microbiome monitoring could become a diagnostic tool
  • •Volatile organic compound analysis may offer a non-invasive method to assess intestinal bacterial populations and parasite burden in clinical practice
  • •This pilot study has significant limitations (uncontrolled diet, disease history, infection stage) so findings should inform further research rather than change current tapeworm control practices
  • •Peritoneal fluid analysis is essential for diagnosing peritonitis and predicting prognosis—perform abdominocentesis promptly in colic cases with concerning clinical signs
  • •Most horses with peritonitis have a reasonably good prognosis (83% short-term survival, 88% long-term survival), which should inform owner counselling during acute cases
  • •Consider infectious causes as most likely, but recognize that 39% of cases remain idiopathic even after investigation—supportive medical management remains critical
  • •Consider selenium deficiency as a differential diagnosis in mares presenting with uterine inertia unresponsive to standard oxytocin treatment
  • •Screen entire herds and newborn foals when selenium deficiency is suspected, as it affects multiple animals and causes white muscle disease in offspring
  • •Ensure adequate selenium supplementation in breeding herds, particularly in regions with known selenium-poor forage, to prevent reproductive and neonatal complications
  • •IBD in horses involves pathological changes to the enteric nervous system, specifically loss of interstitial cells of Cajal that function as gastrointestinal pacemakers, which may explain motility disturbances and clinical signs
  • •Understanding ICC depletion in equine IBD may guide future therapeutic strategies targeting gastrointestinal function and neurological dysfunction
  • •Clinical presentations of weight loss, diarrhoea and colic in horses with IBD may be linked to structural changes in enteric pacemaker cells and supporting neural tissue
  • •Hypercalcemia is always abnormal in equine patients and warrants systematic investigation; primary hyperparathyroidism should be included in differential diagnoses alongside more common causes like renal disease and malignancy.
  • •Atypical neurological presentations such as headshaking combined with chronic lameness, back pain, and recurrent colic may indicate metabolic disease—consider measuring serum calcium, phosphate, and PTH concentrations as part of diagnostic workup.
  • •When hypercalcemia is confirmed, perform fractional excretion studies of calcium and phosphorus and measure PTH to distinguish primary hyperparathyroidism from other etiologies, as treatment options and prognosis differ significantly.
  • •A loud holosystolic cardiac murmur in a horse with acute colic warrants immediate echocardiographic evaluation to rule out life-threatening aortic pathology such as aneurysm or fistulation.
  • •Supravalvular aortic stenosis can occur in association with aortic aneurysm and aortopulmonary fistula; these conditions may represent different manifestations of a systemic vascular disease.
  • •Elastin arteriopathy may not always have an identifiable genetic basis in the elastin gene, suggesting other genetic or acquired mechanisms may contribute to aortic disease in horses.
  • •Owners need clear, accessible information about actual colic treatment costs (£873–£6437) and insurance coverage limits before emergencies occur—current policy documents are too complex for most to understand
  • •Insurance policies vary substantially in what they cover; ensure clients review specific terms and conditions early, not during crisis situations, to understand their financial obligations
  • •Budget counselling for colic cases should reference these cost ranges and encourage pre-planning through insurance review, as sudden treatment decisions under stress lead to poor outcomes
  • •Vaginal bleeding in aged mares warrants transrectal ultrasound and hysteroscopy to rule out uterine neoplasia, which is uncommon but serious when present.
  • •Standing hand-assisted laparoscopy is a viable surgical option for uterine mass removal in mares, avoiding general anesthesia risks in older patients, but thorough pre-operative metastatic staging is critical to prognosis.
  • •Post-operative colic in the immediate post-surgical period can occur and may reflect pre-existing metastatic or complicating conditions; close monitoring and appropriate diagnostic imaging are essential.
  • •Pack donkeys and cart horses in this region require species-specific management: focus on back and tail sore prevention in donkeys through improved saddle fit and harness design, and girth sore management in cart horses through better equipment maintenance and hygiene
  • •Hoof overgrowth is a critical welfare issue affecting both species (35-62% prevalence) — establish regular farriery services and owner education on hoof care as a priority intervention
  • •Epizootic lymphangitis in cart horses (10.7% prevalence) requires targeted disease control and biosecurity measures, while systemic issues (feed, water, housing, training methods causing abnormal behavior) must be addressed through government support and capacity building for local animal health professionals
  • •Saliva testing could provide a non-invasive alternative to blood sampling for diagnosing acute abdominal disease in horses, reducing stress during colic emergencies
  • •Salivary biomarkers may help differentiate healthy from diseased horses and could complement traditional diagnostic approaches in field settings
  • •Further research needed to identify which specific salivary analytes are most sensitive and specific for different types of equine abdominal disease to enable practical clinical application
  • •EFE carries a guarded prognosis—only 48% of surgical cases survive to discharge, so owners need realistic expectations before surgery
  • •Horses requiring intestinal resection have worse outcomes than those with simple entrapment repair; discuss this distinction when counseling clients
  • •Windsucker/crib-biters are overrepresented in EFE cases (60%), suggesting this behavioral trait may be a significant risk factor worth monitoring
  • •Severe EGUS grade IV can present acutely as colic with endotoxemia signs; consider gastroscopy in colic cases with prolonged nasogastric reflux
  • •Combining parenteral pantoprazole with enteral ranitidine and sucralfate may be an effective protocol for severe ulceration, achieving substantial healing within 30 days
  • •Close monitoring with repeat gastroscopy is valuable to confirm healing progression and guide ongoing medical management
  • •Consider pheochromocytoma in colic cases presenting with unexplained haemodynamic instability during anaesthesia, elevated PCV, hyperglycaemia, and hyperlactataemia — early recognition may alter perioperative management strategy
  • •Expect significant challenges with blood pressure control perioperatively; prepare for episodes of hypertension and tachycardia that may not respond well to standard interventions
  • •These tumours carry a grave prognosis; counsel owners that emergency surgery may not resolve the underlying condition and post-operative survival is poor
  • •In regions with endemic S. vulgaris, suspect nonstrangulating intestinal infarction in horses presenting with mild colic lasting >24 hours and concurrent peritonitis—early recognition is critical as medical treatment alone does not succeed
  • •Surgical intervention with intestinal resection offers the only realistic chance of survival (33%), so consider laparotomy in suitable candidates rather than medical management alone
  • •Test for S. vulgaris-specific antibodies and monitor peritoneal fluid WBC and SAA concentrations to support diagnosis and guide treatment decisions
  • •Mesenteric rent surgery in broodmares has good survival outcomes; mares that reach discharge have excellent long-term prognosis for returning to breeding
  • •Younger mares (≤10 years) have substantially better surgical survival than older mares, which should inform case selection and owner counseling
  • •Rent closure is recommended to prevent postoperative colic recurrence even though it doesn't affect survival
  • •Establishing a dedicated clinical nutrition counselling service improves outcomes: 92% of referred cases achieved good follow-up results, demonstrating the value of formalised nutritional management protocols
  • •Age-specific feeding adjustments are critical—older horses require modified concentrate levels and careful monitoring of body condition, while young horses tolerate higher forage intake
  • •Nutritional diagnosis matters: horses with chronic weight loss need higher forage intake while those with chronic diarrhoea require different dietary management, indicating one-size-fits-all feeding plans are ineffective
  • •Consider S. vulgaris as a differential diagnosis in horses presenting with colic and intestinal infarction, particularly in inadequately dewormed animals
  • •Implement robust anthelmintic programs and strategic deworming to minimize risk of large strongyle migration and associated intestinal complications
  • •Recognize that while S. vulgaris can cause serious intestinal disease, it is no longer the primary cause of colic in modern equine practice
  • •About 40% of horses naturally close the epiploic foramen after surgical treatment without additional intervention, but be prepared for potential recurrence if closure does not occur
  • •Horses with post-surgical colic and wind-sucking/cribbing behavior warrant close monitoring and possible preventive mesh closure consideration
  • •Laparoscopic evaluation 5-10 weeks post-celiotomy can identify those horses requiring prophylactic mesh closure to prevent re-entrapment
  • •Prosthetic mesh obliteration is a safe, effective surgical option for preventing nephrosplenic entrapment recurrence with no procedure-related complications in this case series
  • •Post-obliteration colic occurred in 38% of cases but was not due to entrapment recurrence, suggesting other causes should be investigated if colic develops
  • •Most horses (92%) return to previous function after mesh obliteration, making this a practical preventive surgery for horses with confirmed or high-risk nephrosplenic entrapment
  • •This minimally invasive laparoscopic technique offers a preventative option for horses at high risk of epiploic foramen entrapment, reducing time away from work compared to emergency colic surgery
  • •The procedure is quick (18–27 minutes) and can be performed in standing sedated horses, making it practical for field or clinic use
  • •Long-term follow-up to 6 months shows the mesh closure is durable and well-tolerated without causing problematic adhesions or complications
  • •Colic remains the primary life-limiting condition in aged horses; digestive system disease accounts for over 40% of deaths in horses ≥15 years old
  • •PPID significantly impacts quality of life and longevity in aged horses; recognize that euthanasia decisions in PPID cases often involve multiple concurrent conditions (colic, lameness, cancer, neurological disease) rather than pituitary disease alone
  • •Cancer prevalence increases with age; be alert to neoplastic presentations in geriatric horses, particularly squamous cell carcinoma, lymphoma, and melanoma
  • •Monitor postoperative colic surgery patients closely for declining hematocrit and tachycardia in the first 1-2 days after surgery, as these may indicate hemoperitoneum requiring aggressive fluid and blood product support
  • •Intestinal resection cases carry higher risk for postoperative bleeding; be prepared with colloid support and transfusion capabilities for these patients
  • •Early recognition through ultrasound and clinical signs combined with supportive care (fluids, colloids, blood products, antifibrinolytic agents) offers the best chance of survival in this serious complication
  • •Reduced plasma glutathione reductase activity appears to indicate oxidative stress in horses with small intestinal strangulation, which may influence prognosis and survival outcomes
  • •Electrolyte and acid-base abnormalities (particularly bicarbonate and PaCO2) correlate with antioxidant enzyme activity in colic cases, suggesting monitoring these parameters may be clinically relevant
  • •Antioxidant status may represent a measurable biomarker for oxidative stress severity in small intestinal strangulation cases, potentially aiding prognostic assessment
  • •Standing flank laparotomy is a practical surgical option for nephrosplenic entrapment in horses that fail to respond to medical therapy (phenylephrine, jogging) and cannot undergo general anesthesia due to cost or risk
  • •This technique enables rapid return to work (within 30 days) and significantly reduces hospitalization time and costs compared to exploratory celiotomy under general anesthesia
  • •Diagnosis should be confirmed via rectal palpation and transabdominal ultrasonography before pursuing surgical intervention
  • •Acorn ingestion in autumn can cause fatal typhlocolitis and acute renal failure; limit grazing access to acorns during acorn fall season, particularly in years with heavy acorn crops
  • •Distinguish between acute haemorrhagic diarrhoea (grave prognosis, rapid decline) and colic with gas distension (better prognosis with medical management); early aggressive fluid therapy critical to manage hypovolaemia and renal dysfunction
  • •Individual horses appear to have varying susceptibility to acorn toxicity despite exposure, so monitor high-risk grazing situations closely and be alert to unusual diarrhoea or colic during acorn season
  • •Thoracoscopic repair offers a minimally invasive alternative to conventional surgery for diaphragmatic hernias, reducing anesthesia risk and recovery time
  • •Standing sedated procedures may provide superior outcomes for appropriate diaphragmatic cases, particularly when laparoscopic approach fails due to anatomical obstruction
  • •Horses can return to full athletic and reproductive function after thoracoscopic diaphragmatic repair with appropriate surgical technique
  • •Monitor postoperative horses closely for diarrhoea and colic within the first week after surgery, particularly noting elevated packed cell volume and low white blood cell count as indicators of severe C. difficile infection
  • •PCR ribotype 078 C. difficile can cause life-threatening postoperative enterocolitis in Thoroughbreds; consider early diagnostic testing and aggressive treatment when these clinical signs appear
  • •Healthcare-associated transmission of C. difficile between horses is possible even with extended intervals between cases; implement enhanced biosecurity and infection control measures in surgical facilities
  • •Endurance competitors should recognize that colic presents a significant welfare and performance risk; prevention strategies and rapid recognition are critical
  • •Severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalances in endurance horses with colic may reflect cumulative exercise stress rather than primary gastrointestinal pathology, affecting treatment approach
  • •Veterinarians managing colicky endurance horses should consider the interaction between endurance-induced physiological stress and colic etiology when developing treatment protocols
  • •Medical management with exercise, IV fluids, analgesia, and phenylephrine (for LDD cases) should be attempted first for suspected large colon displacement, as it succeeds in ~70-75% of cases
  • •Most horses with colon displacement have good survival outcomes (94%) whether managed medically or surgically, so don't assume surgery is always necessary
  • •If medical management fails after appropriate trial period, surgical intervention can still be pursued with reasonable prognosis
  • •Intestinal hyperammonaemia should be considered in horses and foals presenting with colic, diarrhoea, or neurological signs; blood ammonium concentration at admission is the most reliable prognostic indicator
  • •Affected horses commonly show tachycardia, elevated PCV, and metabolic derangements (hyperlactataemia, hyperglycaemia) that guide supportive care decisions
  • •Survivors have excellent long-term prognosis with complete recovery and return to function, justifying aggressive treatment despite severe initial presentation
  • •Descending colon resection and anastomosis offers good long-term prognosis—expect 84% hospital discharge and 93% survival beyond 6 months when managing small colon obstructions
  • •Be prepared for strangulating lipoma as the primary indication; monitor post-op horses closely for fever, diarrhea, and signs of peritonitis or endotoxemia as these are the main life-threatening complications
  • •Perioperative management decisions (timing, medical vs. surgical factors) did not significantly affect short-term survival in this series, suggesting that appropriate surgical intervention itself is the key prognostic factor
  • •Caecal impaction surgery carries fair immediate prognosis (~65% survival to discharge) but good long-term outlook (85% of survivors) for this life-threatening condition
  • •Monitor for caecal impaction complications in post-operative orthopaedic cases, as 50% of impactions in this series were secondary to previous surgery
  • •Typhlotomy alone may be sufficient in selected cases, with excellent outcomes (100% survival in this small subset)
  • •Acquired small intestinal pseudodiverticula should be considered in young horses presenting with acute colic and chronic inappetence/weight loss, even without classic muscular hypertrophy signs
  • •Jejunojejunostomy can be a viable surgical treatment option with good long-term outcomes for this condition
  • •The exact etiology of acquired pseudodiverticula remains unclear; maintain high clinical suspicion in cases with unexplained chronic colic in yearlings
  • •Owners can be counseled that location of enterolith (ascending vs descending colon) does not significantly impact long-term survival or complication rates post-operatively
  • •Post-discharge monitoring should focus on incisional healing, laminitis prevention, nutritional support for weight maintenance, and recognition of recurrent colic signs
  • •Short-term hospitalization complications like gastric ulceration and ileus are common post-enterolith surgery regardless of location; management protocols should account for these predictable issues
  • •Consider ileus in differential diagnosis for post parturient mares presenting with colic, even though uncommon
  • •Ileus causes functional obstruction rather than physical blockage, requiring specific diagnostic and management approaches
  • •Recognition of this condition in post parturient mares may improve diagnostic accuracy and treatment outcomes
  • •Horses with colic show altered serotonin regulation that may perpetuate ileus through receptor dysfunction; this may inform future therapeutic targets beyond conventional treatments
  • •Understanding serotonin's role in colic pathophysiology could lead to novel pharmacological interventions to improve outcomes in cases of bowel compromise
  • •Elevated serotonin in colic horses predisposed to laminitis suggests a biochemical link between gastrointestinal disease and secondary laminitis development
  • •Horses with colic and signs of endotoxaemia may develop muscle damage independent of trauma; elevated muscle enzymes warrant investigation for systemic endotoxic effects
  • •Severe gastrointestinal disease (ulcerative colitis, obstruction) can cause systemic endotoxaemia leading to myonecrosis, which may contribute to poor recovery or secondary complications
  • •Post-colic monitoring should include muscle enzyme assessment to identify endotoxin-induced myonecrosis, which may affect prognosis and rehabilitation
  • •High concentrate feeding is associated with increased DPJ risk; consider reviewing feeding protocols for horses prone to this condition, though feeding amount alone cannot predict disease
  • •Pasture grazing patterns differ in DPJ cases; monitor horses on combined high-concentrate, high-grazing management for clinical signs
  • •These associations require validation by additional studies before modifying feeding practices; current evidence provides aetiological clues rather than actionable diagnostic criteria
  • •Intestinal neoplasia should be considered in older horses (mean 16.6 years) presenting with weight loss, colic, anorexia, and fever, particularly in Arabian breeds
  • •Diagnostic workup should include rectal examination, blood analysis, abdominocentesis, ultrasound, rectal biopsy, and exploratory laparotomy as antemortem diagnosis is challenging (38% success rate)
  • •Prognosis is grave with median 1.9-month survival and 15% discharge rate; all horses in this series were eventually euthanized despite treatment attempts
  • •Red maple leaf toxicosis causes severe hemolytic anemia with high mortality (59%); monitor for signs of poisoning if wilted leaves are accessible to horses
  • •Avoid corticosteroid administration in red maple toxicosis cases, as it significantly worsens prognosis
  • •Development of fever during hospitalization is a favorable prognostic indicator; initial blood parameters alone cannot predict survival outcomes
  • •IFEE should be considered in the differential diagnosis of small intestinal obstruction in horses presenting with colic; gross lesions may be subtle and easily missed without careful intraoperative examination
  • •Histopathological examination of resected intestinal tissue is essential for diagnosis as gross appearance alone may not be distinctive
  • •Surgical resection of affected intestine offers good prognosis with 70% of surgically treated horses achieving complete recovery
  • •Laparoscopic nephrosplenic space closure is effective at preventing recurrent LDDLC in horses with previous episodes—consider this preventive approach for repeat offenders
  • •While this procedure eliminates LDDLC recurrence, horses may still experience colic from other causes, so ongoing management and owner education about colic signs remains important
  • •This minimally invasive technique reduces need for repeat ventral celiotomy, meaning faster recovery and less abdominal trauma compared to repeated open surgery
  • •Screen horses receiving commercial plasma transfusions for signs of hepatic disease (lethargy, severe colic) beginning 4-8 weeks post-transfusion, as delayed onset serum hepatitis may be fatal
  • •Consider serum hepatitis in the differential diagnosis for refractory colic developing weeks after plasma administration, even if initial transfusion appeared successful
  • •Document all plasma products used and maintain awareness that commercial plasma carries a small but real risk of transmissible serum hepatitis; discuss this risk with owners before transfusion
  • •Thoracic rib resection is a viable surgical approach for accessing and repairing diaphragmatic hernias in adult horses when conservative management fails
  • •Use thoracoscopy and/or flank incision pre-operatively to map the hernia and plan the optimal rib resection site, improving surgical efficiency
  • •Be aware that adhesions between abdominal organs and the hernia defect are likely; gentle dissection and identification of these structures is essential before closure
  • •Include proliferative enteropathy in the differential diagnosis for weanling foals presenting with rapid weight loss, diarrhoea, colic and hypoproteinaemia, particularly in outbreak situations on breeding farms.
  • •Consider erythromycin estolate ± rifampin as effective treatment for suspected equine PE, with prolonged therapy (≥21 days) required for clinical recovery.
  • •Use faecal PCR and serology (antibody testing) for antemortem diagnosis alongside clinical signs and biochemical findings; hypoproteinaemia is a consistent marker of the disease.
  • •While prebiotics show theoretical promise for colic prevention through microbiome support, controlled equine studies are needed before clinical recommendations can be made
  • •A. muciniphila-based therapies remain experimental in horses; do not implement as standard practice without peer-reviewed equine trial data
  • •Consider prebiotic supplementation as a supportive measure for gut health, but understand current evidence is largely translational and not specific to equine populations
  • •AI-driven decision-support systems can now predict colic survival outcomes with high accuracy (AUC 0.928), potentially helping practitioners identify high-risk cases earlier for timely surgical intervention
  • •Focus on accurate assessment and documentation of five key clinical parameters—total protein, abdominal appearance, mucous membrane color, packed cell volume, and temperature of extremities—as these are most predictive of survival
  • •AI models for colic prognosis are becoming clinically applicable through explainable AI methods, meaning practitioners can understand *why* the system makes specific predictions rather than treating it as a black box
  • •Several real-time diagnostic technologies (indocyanine green angiography, tissue oximetry) are already commercially available and could potentially be incorporated into colic surgery protocols to improve viability assessment decisions.
  • •Until equine-specific validation studies are completed, these ancillary diagnostics should be used as adjuncts to—not replacements for—traditional clinical assessment of intestinal viability during surgery.
  • •There is significant opportunity for equine surgeons to collaborate with human and companion animal surgical specialists to establish evidence-based guidelines for intraoperative viability assessment.
  • •Equine veterinarians prioritize clinical excellence and professionalism over financial considerations, suggesting that building reputation through quality care and service should be central to practice strategy
  • •In emergency scenarios (colic, lameness), focus on demonstrating clinical competence; in pre-purchase work, emphasize professional credentials and thorough evaluation protocols to meet veterinarian expectations
  • •Client satisfaction drivers vary by scenario type—acute cases demand clinical quality, while pre-purchase work demands perceived professionalism and thoroughness
  • •Understand your clients' financial constraints when recommending services—income level and number of horses owned are strong predictors of what clients can afford
  • •Tailor your treatment discussions and payment options to reflect client capacity; offering flexible payment plans may improve compliance with recommended care
  • •Use these findings to adjust pricing strategy and communication style based on practice demographics to improve client satisfaction and practice sustainability
  • •Horse owners are generally willing to consider alternative service delivery models—explore telemedicine, clinic-based visits, or bundled care packages to improve access and client satisfaction.
  • •Price expectations are set: clients expect routine vaccinations around $150 and lameness exams around $200; pricing significantly above these benchmarks may limit uptake.
  • •Low insurance and health savings account adoption suggests a major market opportunity—educating owners about financial planning tools and wellness programs could improve both practice revenue and client care compliance.
  • •Use abdominal ultrasound as a primary diagnostic tool when evaluating equine colic—it reliably identifies which cases need surgery versus medical management
  • •Watch for moderate-to-severe pain signs, recurring pain after initial treatment, and loss of gut sounds as red flags indicating surgical colic requiring emergency referral
  • •Recognize that late diagnosis significantly reduces recovery outcomes; implement diagnostic imaging early in colic evaluation to improve prognosis
  • •Transport horses in groups rather than singly when possible, as this significantly reduces behavioral problems during transit
  • •Implement hay feeding during transport and ensure proper management practices and safety equipment to minimize health complications like diarrhea and injuries
  • •Short journeys (<2 hours) are common in Germany; prioritize stress-reduction strategies during transport regardless of duration, as behavioral issues are reported in one-third of cases
  • •When advising showjumping horse owners on post-colic surgery rehabilitation and return to competition, veterinarians lack established performance benchmarks from scientific literature specific to jumping disciplines
  • •Current post-operative protocols may be based on racehorse data, which may not directly translate to the different biomechanical and performance demands of showjumping
  • •Developing discipline-specific outcome measures for showjumping horses would improve objective assessment of surgical success and guide realistic return-to-sport timelines
  • •Work closely with your anaesthetist to develop a complete perioperative pain management plan before colic surgery—anaesthesia and analgesia decisions made preoperatively significantly impact recovery success
  • •Understand the common intraoperative complications that can occur during colic surgery so you can recognize early signs and communicate effectively with the surgical and anaesthetic teams
  • •Recovery management is as critical as surgery itself—prepare appropriate facilities and protocols for the high-risk recovery period, as this is where many complications emerge
  • •Veterinary professionals are perceived as the most influential source for colic emergency planning decisions—leverage this position in client education and recommendations
  • •Focus messaging on welfare benefits and improved decision-making during emergencies, as these beliefs strongly predict owner adoption of preventive and preparation strategies
  • •Awareness campaigns like REACT effectively increase uptake of preventive colic recommendations; consider promoting established campaigns or developing similar targeted awareness strategies
  • •Nearly half of eventing horses experience musculoskeletal problems; focus preventive strategies on the foot and joint structures as priority areas for your population
  • •Injury prevention strategies should differ by context: educate riders about competition-related hoof/tendon injuries and training-related ligament/stifle injuries
  • •Recovery time varies dramatically by injury type (2 weeks to >12 months); set realistic owner expectations and tailor rehabilitation protocols accordingly
  • •Recognize that owners and vets prioritize factors differently (especially finances); explicit discussion of these differences during critical cases improves shared decision-making and may reduce owner guilt afterward
  • •Allow time to address the emotional bond between owner and horse during critical colic cases, as this relationship commonly creates decision-making conflict; acknowledge and validate these feelings rather than dismissing them
  • •Provide clear information about practical barriers (referral facility location, transport logistics, weather impacts, cost) upfront and help owners problem-solve these issues, as unpreparedness significantly influences decision quality
  • •Automated colic detection using wearable accelerometers could reduce owner burden of continuous observation and improve early intervention opportunities
  • •This technology addresses a key challenge in equine practice: owners often miss early subtle behavioral changes that indicate colic onset
  • •Implementation of such diagnostic tools could enable earlier veterinary consultation and potentially improve colic outcomes
  • •Ensure all horses receive minimum 1.5% bodyweight in forage daily with continuous access (no >4-5 hour gaps) to prevent gastric ulcers, hindgut acidosis, and behavioral issues
  • •Replace starch-based concentrates with high-fiber alternatives (e.g., fiber-based oils, chaff, silage) when designing high-energy rations to reduce EGUS incidence and laminitis risk
  • •Monitor for wood-chewing and stereotypic behaviors as indicators of inadequate forage intake or low forage quality; increase hay quantity/quality and grazing time rather than supplementing starch
  • •Time to surgery matters significantly for colic cases—early intervention improves survival outcomes
  • •Stay current with recent surgical technique innovations as the field continues to evolve with new approaches
  • •Implement prevention strategies for postoperative complications and lesion recurrence to improve long-term colic case outcomes
  • •Abdominal ultrasound should be a core diagnostic tool in your colic workup whether you're in ambulatory practice or hospital settings—learn the technique and key normal/abnormal findings
  • •Sonography helps differentiate types of colic and guides treatment decisions, reducing unnecessary surgery and improving outcomes for referred cases
  • •Stay current with recent developments in sonographic technique as the field continues to evolve and improve diagnostic accuracy
  • •When discussing colic surgery with owners, emphasize positive survival rates and your hospital's track record to increase consent rates, as trust and perceived prognosis are key decision factors
  • •Address cost concerns proactively and discuss alternative outcomes including euthanasia; acknowledge regional variation in owner attitudes may require tailored communication strategies
  • •Focus owner education on realistic survival statistics and post-operative quality of life, as uncertainty about outcomes is a major barrier to surgical decision-making
  • •Administering hyoscine butylbromide pre-admission for colic will not artificially create dilated loops on ultrasound or mask significant small intestinal pathology
  • •The dramatic heart rate elevation (doubling within 1 minute) should be anticipated and monitored when using this medication in colic cases
  • •Ultrasound examination performed shortly after hyoscine butylbromide administration remains valid for clinical decision-making in horses without pre-existing small intestinal disease
  • •This foundational anatomy study identifies where cannabinoid receptors are located in the horse's small intestine, supporting future research into cannabis-derived therapies for colic and intestinal inflammation
  • •The widespread distribution of these receptors across epithelial, neuronal, glial and immune cells suggests multiple potential targets for therapeutic intervention in gastrointestinal disorders
  • •While this is basic research only, it provides rationale for clinical trials investigating non-psychoactive cannabis molecules as adjunctive treatments for equine intestinal disease
  • •Neonatal and young foals with colic require particularly close monitoring post-surgery given their age-dependent disparities in intestinal repair capacity and survival outcomes.
  • •Early dietary management and microbial colonization patterns in foals may influence the maturation of intestinal repair mechanisms and should be considered in preventive management strategies.
  • •Understanding that intestinal barrier repair involves complex interactions between the nervous system, microbiota, and nutrition can inform post-operative supportive care decisions in foal colic cases.
  • •Incomplete ileocecal bypass is a viable surgical option for ileal dysfunction when the tissue can be preserved rather than resected, offering good long-term outcomes and return to function in sport horses
  • •This technique may reduce recurrence of ileal impaction compared to non-surgical or manipulative approaches, worth considering as part of the surgical decision-making algorithm
  • •The high success rate (90% long-term survival) supports offering this procedure as a treatment option when ileal pathology is confirmed but the diseased segment appears salvageable
  • •Educational interventions on colic recognition and treatment in resource-limited settings should prioritize basic clinical signs and when to seek veterinary help, as a significant proportion of owners lack fundamental knowledge
  • •Develop partnerships with local agrovet stores and community leaders to distribute evidence-based colic information, since these are primary sources owners currently consult
  • •Design culturally appropriate educational materials that acknowledge and build upon existing herbal remedy use while introducing safer, more effective treatment options for working equid owners
  • •Consider firocoxib as an alternative to flunixin for horses with surgical colic, particularly those with severe gastrointestinal disease, to reduce risk of NSAID-related complications
  • •Understand the pharmacological difference: COX-2-selective drugs reduce inflammation and pain while preserving the protective gastrointestinal and renal functions provided by COX-1
  • •Challenge established protocols—emerging evidence suggests firocoxib may offer superior safety margins in colic cases despite flunixin's entrenched use in equine practice
  • •Horse owners lack fundamental knowledge of normal clinical parameters; veterinarians should routinely educate clients on how to assess heart rate, respiratory rate, and temperature as baseline skills for recognizing emergencies
  • •Confidence in colic recognition does not correlate with actual ability—targeted educational resources for owners should focus on practical assessment techniques and decision-making algorithms for different colic presentations, not generic reassurance
  • •Significant gaps exist in owners' understanding of when to call a veterinarian for colic; clear, accessible guidelines on red flags and clinical thresholds are needed to improve early intervention outcomes
  • •Modify stall management and feeding practices—avoid meal feeding and prolonged confinement to reduce alterations in colonic water movement and microbiome disruption
  • •Implement surveillance-based parasite control rather than relying solely on anthelmintic efficacy, as large strongyle resistance patterns are changing
  • •Tailor management recommendations based on colic type; different conditions (impaction vs. volvulus vs. lipoma) require different nutritional and management strategies
  • •Consider ECoV as a differential diagnosis in adult horses presenting with concurrent fever, colic, and anorexia, particularly if leukopenia is identified on bloodwork
  • •Most horses recover well with supportive care, but anticipate need for intensive management of severe leukopenia, systemic inflammation, and metabolic disturbances during typical 5-day hospitalization
  • •Use fecal real-time quantitative PCR to confirm ECoV diagnosis in suspect cases at referral facilities
  • •Understand that 'colic' encompasses 80 different conditions with varying treatability and prognosis, making cost and outcome prediction difficult at first opinion
  • •Know that modern colic surgery has good survival rates (74-85%) and functional recovery rates (63-85%), which helps inform client discussions about referral decisions
  • •Recognize that horse owner decision-making about colic treatment is complex and should include discussion of insurance coverage, treatment costs, and realistic outcome expectations
  • •Implement strict biosecurity measures including feed and water sanitation during ECoV outbreaks, as the virus spreads via feco-oral contamination in adult horses
  • •Recognize the non-specific clinical presentation (fever, lethargy, anorexia) and request fecal testing via PCR when ECoV is suspected, particularly during known outbreaks
  • •Provide supportive care as most cases resolve self-limitingly, but monitor closely for rare but serious complications such as endotoxemia or encephalopathy that indicate compromised intestinal barrier function
  • •Prompt referral to a surgical facility remains one of the most impactful interventions a referring veterinarian can make, potentially more important than technological advances in surgery itself
  • •High complication rates persist despite improvements in surgical and anaesthetic techniques, suggesting that surgical decision-making and case selection may be as important as the technical execution
  • •Cost of colic surgery is a significant barrier to life-saving treatment; exploring ways to reduce expenses may ultimately save more horses' lives than pursuing expensive technical improvements
  • •Use composite pain scales or facial expression assessments as the most validated objective methods for evaluating your horse's pain response to treatment
  • •Standardized pain assessment tools can help you and your veterinarian communicate more clearly about pain severity and track treatment effectiveness over time
  • •Objective pain scales are increasingly important for evaluating new pain management strategies and ensuring better welfare outcomes in hospitalized and ridden horses
  • •Owner perception of disease priorities differs significantly between horse and donkey populations; intervention programs should be species-specific and informed by local stakeholder input rather than assumption
  • •Participatory assessment methods are valuable for identifying working equid health concerns in resource-limited settings and can reveal previously undocumented conditions and regional disease priorities
  • •Educational and veterinary programs targeting working equid populations should prioritize the conditions owners identify as most impactful on animal function and productivity
  • •Muscarinic receptor antagonists and agonists may offer targeted therapeutic options for managing equine airway disease and colic, warranting further clinical investigation
  • •Understanding mAChR pharmacology and tissue distribution is important for predicting drug side effects and optimizing treatment protocols in domestic animals
  • •Current research gaps in domestic animal mAChR characterization suggest opportunity for species-specific pharmacological studies to improve therapeutic efficacy
  • •Recognise ECoV in adult horses presenting with fever, depression, and anorexia; submit faecal samples for qPCR confirmation rather than relying on clinical signs alone
  • •Implement strict biosecurity protocols including faecal-oral precautions, as no specific vaccine or immunoprophylactic measures are currently available for horses
  • •Monitor for complications such as endotoxaemia and hyperammonaemia-associated encephalopathy in infected horses, as these significantly impact prognosis beyond the primary viral infection
  • •Temperature management of exposed intestine during colic surgery may be important to maintain gastrointestinal function and reduce post-operative ileus complications
  • •Keep intestinal tissue warm during surgical procedures to preserve normal pacemaker cell activity and contractility
  • •Post-operative ileus risk may be influenced by intra-operative temperature changes to the bowel
  • •Always allow access to hay and water during transport and implement post-journey recovery protocols to significantly reduce heat stroke and laminitis risk
  • •Assess horse health status before transport and provide appropriate protections; younger/less experienced handlers managing large numbers of horses should prioritize safety checks
  • •For racehorses or long-distance transport, monitor closely for pneumonia signs and ensure adequate ventilation; check horses immediately after arrival to identify and manage injuries early
  • •Feed management is critical—avoid sudden feed changes and limit concentrate grain to prevent starch overload and cecal dysbiosis
  • •Understanding your horse's hindgut microbiome status through modern diagnostic techniques may soon allow targeted treatment protocols rather than empirical therapies
  • •Maintain consistent management and monitor for early signs of hindgut dysfunction to prevent progression to clinical colic
  • •Improved understanding of epiploic foramen anatomy from this detailed dissection study may support development of better surgical treatment and laparoscopic prevention strategies for EFE colic.
  • •The gastropancreatic fold is a critical anatomical structure in EFE cases and should be a key focus point during surgical exploration and repair.
  • •Clinicians should be aware that standard anatomy textbooks may contain inaccurate or incomplete descriptions of this region, potentially limiting diagnostic and treatment approaches.
  • •Owner education programmes targeting recognition of colic signs and management factors (water access, workload, feeding practices) are critical for reducing colic incidence in working equid populations
  • •Financial barriers to veterinary care are substantial in resource-limited settings; subsidised or community-based veterinary services may improve treatment-seeking behaviour
  • •Working equid owners require targeted education on basic gastrointestinal health, as most cannot identify causes of colic or recognise abdominal pain
  • •Veterinarians should provide targeted education to horse owners on recognising colic signs and normal clinical parameters, as current knowledge gaps are widespread and not correlated with experience level
  • •Educational materials should focus on teaching owners how to assess faecal output, gastrointestinal sounds, respiratory rate, and heart rate, as these are the most commonly assessed parameters but many owners lack confidence
  • •Consider that many owners will call for veterinary assistance without conducting any assessment; education should emphasize which parameters are most critical to evaluate before professional assessment
  • •Standardise your colic education: clarify with owners exactly which signs warrant immediate veterinary attention rather than assuming they know (recumbency, rolling, sweating, unproductive straining, behaviour change)
  • •Tailor communication to owner experience level: first-time owners and those with previous colic cases need different messaging—experienced owners may under-estimate severity due to past 'false alarms'
  • •Establish clear protocols: provide owners with written guidance on colic red-flags and encourage early calls; delayed owner recognition remains a bottleneck in colic outcomes
  • •Assess pain in horses using both obvious signs (lameness, rolling, flank watching) and subtle indicators (facial expression, behavior changes, stance) to ensure appropriate treatment
  • •Use multimodal analgesia combining NSAIDs, opioids, and/or α2-agonists tailored to pain severity and chronicity rather than single-agent therapy
  • •Consider specialized delivery methods (intra-articular, epidural) and neuropathic agents (gabapentin) for specific conditions and hospitalized cases, with adjusted protocols for foals
  • •Suspect EPE in weanling foals presenting with fever, lethargy, diarrhoea and colic; use combination of ultrasound, serology and faecal PCR for diagnosis rather than relying on single diagnostic method
  • •Monitor for hypoproteinaemia and intestinal wall thickening on ultrasound as key diagnostic indicators of EPE in affected foals
  • •Implement biosecurity and management practices focused on weanling foal groups, as this age group is at highest risk of EPE
  • •Ethyl pyruvate is a novel anti-inflammatory agent that may have clinical potential for treating endotoxaemia-related conditions in horses with colic or sepsis, though clinical trials are still needed
  • •This preliminary work provides a foundation for further investigation into therapeutic options for conditions with high morbidity and mortality in equine practice
  • •Results from preclinical models in other species suggest mechanistic benefit, but efficacy and safety protocols specific to horses require additional study
  • •Suspect EPE in weanling foals presenting with diarrhoea, colic, lethargy and peripheral oedema; use combination of blood work, abdominal ultrasound, serology and faecal PCR for definitive diagnosis
  • •Clinical management and treatment protocols for EPE are established and available, making this a manageable condition if diagnosed promptly
  • •Monitor at-risk foal populations around weaning time and maintain awareness of this emerging disease in your region
  • •Thoroughbred owners should be counselled about elevated genetic risk for crib-biting; isolation of affected horses is not evidence-based and may cause unnecessary stress
  • •The minimal incidence of crib-biting transmission through observation suggests that keeping affected and unaffected horses together is safe management practice
  • •Investigate underlying genetic and constitutional factors in predisposed breeds rather than focusing solely on environmental management modifications
  • •Consider that some colic and laminitis cases in horses may share mechanisms with IBS in humans, potentially involving gut dysbiosis and malabsorption
  • •Be cautious with antibiotic use and post-gastroenteritis management, as disrupted microflora may increase colic/laminitis risk in susceptible horses
  • •Metabolomic biomarkers of faecal or urinary composition may help identify high-risk horses and guide preventative nutritional or probiotic interventions
  • •Standardized surgical outcome databases are needed to improve evidence-based decision-making for colic cases
  • •Surgeon participation and buy-in will be essential for successfully building and maintaining a comprehensive colic surgery registry
  • •Collective data collection across multiple centers can help identify best practices for managing different colic types
  • •Consider systemic lidocaine administration as an adjunct treatment to reduce inflammation and promote mucosal healing in horses post-colic surgery
  • •Be cautious with flunixin meglumine use post-operatively as it may delay mucosal repair in ischaemic intestinal tissue
  • •Preventing endotoxin translocation through improved mucosal recovery is critical to reducing post-operative colic mortality
  • •Review parasite control programs and feeding practices as primary prevention strategies, as these are well-supported risk factors for colic
  • •Minimize sudden changes to diet, avoid prolonged stabling without pasture access, ensure constant water availability, and manage transport and exercise carefully to reduce colic risk
  • •Question anecdotal prevention advice in equestrian circles and seek evidence-based management protocols, as many commonly-cited causes lack scientific substantiation
  • •Reconsider routine use of flunixin in colic cases with suspected intestinal ischaemia, as it may impair tissue recovery
  • •COX-2 selective inhibitors may not be safer alternatives to non-selective NSAIDs in ischaemic colic; both classes warrant cautious use
  • •Consider alternative analgesic and anti-inflammatory strategies in colic patients where intestinal compromise is suspected or confirmed
  • •Portable analysers may not be interchangeable with in-house laboratory analysers for colic cases; results in critical ranges (acidic pH, low lactate, low glucose) should be verified with laboratory confirmation
  • •When using portable analysers for colic evaluation, be aware of systematic underestimation of lactate and glucose, particularly in peritoneal fluid assessment
  • •Portable analyser measurements of electrolytes in peritoneal fluid are less reliable than in blood; prioritise laboratory analysis for peritoneal fluid if making treatment decisions based on sodium and chloride concentrations
  • •Understanding the molecular basis of ischaemic intestinal injury during colic may lead to new treatment strategies beyond current supportive care
  • •Gene expression profiling could eventually help identify biomarkers for prognosis and severity assessment in colic cases with intestinal compromise
  • •This foundational research supports development of future targeted therapies that may improve survival rates in strangulating colic cases
  • •Dexmedetomidine may have differential and potentially stimulatory effects on small intestinal contractility that contradict assumptions about α2 agonists inhibiting GI motility; further in vivo studies are needed before clinical conclusions can be drawn
  • •The layer-specific effects (circular vs. longitudinal muscle) suggest dexmedetomidine's action on intestinal function is more complex than previously understood and warrants caution in extrapolating these in vitro findings to colic cases
  • •Current use of α2 agonists in colicky horses should remain cautious until in vivo evidence clarifies whether these in vitro stimulatory effects translate to clinically meaningful changes in intestinal motility
  • •FEMC offers a reliable, fast method to close the epiploic foramen during emergency colic surgery via standard ventral midline laparotomy, eliminating the need for subsequent laparoscopic procedures
  • •The technique remained effective even after simulated abdominal manipulations typical of colic surgery, making it practical for clinical use
  • •Mesh positioning was durable at 4 weeks post-operatively without causing adhesion complications, suggesting this could prevent recurrent epiploic foramen entrapment in surgical colic cases

Key Research Findings

Only 10 studies met inclusion criteria for systematic review of NSAIDs in equine abdominal pain between 1985 and May 2023

Citarella Gerardo, 2023

Only one of the 10 included studies used a validated pain scoring tool to assess analgesic efficacy

Citarella Gerardo, 2023

High risk of bias identified across studies due to selection, performance, and other types of bias

Citarella Gerardo, 2023

Insufficient evidence exists to determine whether one NSAID is more potent than another for treating abdominal pain in horses

Citarella Gerardo, 2023

No single biomarker has been identified that is perfectly sensitive and specific for intestinal ischemia in equine colic

Ludwig Elsa K, 2023

L-lactate has proven to be a highly functional and frequently utilized diagnostic tool for severe colic assessment

Ludwig Elsa K, 2023

Acute phase proteins, proinflammatory cytokines, endotoxemia markers, and tissue injury metabolites are all currently used biomarkers in equine colic diagnosis

Ludwig Elsa K, 2023

Early diagnosis of severe colic forms through biomarker identification could enable rapid interventions that improve case outcomes

Ludwig Elsa K, 2023

90 predictive models and 9 external validation studies were identified across equine medicine literature

Cummings Charles O, 2023

41% of models were developed to predict colic-related outcomes such as need for surgery or survival

Cummings Charles O, 2023

All included models were classified at high risk of bias, primarily due to analysis-related methodological issues

Cummings Charles O, 2023

Applicability concerns were low for the majority of models despite high bias risk

Cummings Charles O, 2023

No clear benefits for probiotic supplementation to improve starch and fiber digestion in horses

Cooke C Giselle, 2021

No evidence supporting probiotics for colic treatment or salmonellosis prevention

Cooke C Giselle, 2021

Conflicting results observed for management of scouring in neonatal foals

Cooke C Giselle, 2021

Evidence Base

Analgesic Efficacy of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Therapy in Horses with Abdominal Pain: A Systematic Review.

Citarella Gerardo, Heitzmann Vanessa, Ranninger Elisabeth et al. (2023) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Systematic Review

Biomarkers of Intestinal Injury in Colic.

Ludwig Elsa K, Hobbs Kallie J, McKinney-Aguirre Caroline A et al. (2023) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Systematic Review

Clinical predictive models in equine medicine: A systematic review.

Cummings Charles O, Krucik David D R, Price Emma (2023) — Equine veterinary journal

Systematic Review

The Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of Probiotic Bacteria for Equine Use.

Cooke C Giselle, Gibb Zamira, Harnett Joanna E (2021) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Systematic Review

BEVA primary care clinical guidelines: Analgesia.

Bowen I M, Redpath A, Dugdale A et al. (2020) — Equine veterinary journal

Systematic Review

Dexmedetomidine preconditioning reduces ischaemia-reperfusion injury in equine model of large colon volvulus.

Watkins Amanda, Engiles Julie, Long Alicia et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

RCT

Incisional complications after skin closure with stainless‐steel skin staples compared to nylon sutures in horses undergoing colic surgery

Orr Haion, A. Tatz, R. Dahan et al. (2023) — Equine Veterinary Education

RCT

Monitoring equine ascarid and cyathostomin parasites: Evaluating health parameters under different treatment regimens.

Nielsen Martin K, Gee Erica K, Hansen Alyse et al. (2021) — Equine veterinary journal

RCT

Differential effects of selective and non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitors on fecal microbiota in adult horses.

Whitfield-Cargile Canaan M, Chamoun-Emanuelli Ana M, Cohen Noah D et al. (2018) — PloS one

RCT

Ethyl pyruvate diminishes the inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide infusion in horses.

Jacobs C C, Holcombe S J, Cook V L et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

RCT

Comparison of glycopyrrolate and atropine in ameliorating the adverse effects of imidocarb dipropionate in horses.

Donnellan C M B, Page P C, Nurton J P et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

RCT

Comparison of unfractioned and low molecular weight heparin for prophylaxis of coagulopathies in 52 horses with colic: a randomised double-blind clinical trial.

Feige K, Schwarzwald C C, Bombeli Th (2003) — Equine veterinary journal

RCT

Evaluation of long-term postoperative morbidity and survival after equine colic surgery using a complication severity classification.

M. Gandini, G. Giusto (2026) — The Veterinary record

Cohort Study

Prognostic Significance of Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate for Survival in Equine Colic

F. Meistro, R. Rinnovati, E. Blanc et al. (2026) — Animals : an Open Access Journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

A novel kirkovirus may be associated with equine gastrointestinal disease.

Haywood Lillian M B, Clark Ava, Hause Ben et al. (2026) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

A single‐centre retrospective study of surgical site infection following equine colic surgery (2013‒2021)

Theunis Steyn Griessel, J. A. Munoz Moran, C. Byaruhanga et al. (2025) — The Veterinary Record

Cohort Study

Fecal Secretory Immunoglobulin A and Lactate Level as a Biomarker of Mucosal Immune Dysfunction in Horses With Colic.

&#x17b;ak-Bochenek Agnieszka, Dr&#xe1;bkov&#xe1; Zuzana, Sergedaite Vaiva et al. (2025) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Integration of machine learning and viscoelastic testing to improve survival prediction in horses experiencing acute abdominal pain at a veterinary teaching hospital.

Macleod, Wilkins, McCoy et al. (2025) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Comparison of end-to-side versus side-to-side jejunocecostomy in horses.

Moyer Elizabeth K, Bauck Anje G, Denagamage Thomas et al. (2025) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Frequency and nature of health issues among horses housed in an active open barn compared to single boxes-A field study.

Kjellberg Linda, Dahlborn Kristina, Roepstorff Lars et al. (2025) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study
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Effect of a ventral midline colopexy on large colon volvulus recurrence and days to next live foal in Thoroughbred broodmares.

Warren Alexandra S, Werner Laura A, Thombs Lori A et al. (2025) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Equine colic outcomes and prognostic factors at a South African academic hospital (2019-2021).

LM van der Merwe, EC Schliewert (2025) — Journal of the South African Veterinary Association

Cohort Study

Trends in the management of horses referred for colic evaluation preceding and during the COVID-19 pandemic (2013-2023).

Elane George L, Blikslager Anthony T, Mair Tim S (2025) — Equine veterinary education

Cohort Study

Alactic base excess is not a sensitive or specific diagnostic tool for outcome in horses with colic.

Crosby Corinne E, O'Connor Annette, Munsterman Amelia S (2025) — Frontiers in veterinary science

Cohort Study

Dry matter concentration, particle size distribution and sand presence in faeces from horses with and without colic.

M&#xfc;ller Cecilia E (2024) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Cohort Study

A Retrospective Study on the Status of Working Equids Admitted to an Equine Clinic in Cairo: Disease Prevalence and Associations between Physical Parameters and Outcome.

Benedetti Beatrice, Freccero Francesca, Barton Jill et al. (2024) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Blood and peritoneal lactate in equine colic: application in emergency care and construction of a decision tree

A. Barros, M.M. Camargo, M. Nichi et al. (2024) — Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia

Cohort Study

Extracted Plasma Cell-Free DNA Concentrations Are Elevated in Colic Patients with Systemic Inflammation

Rosemary L. Bayless, Bethanie Cooper, M. Sheats (2024) — Veterinary Sciences

Cohort Study

Factors associated with development of post-operative reflux in horses with large colon volvulus and association with complications and outcomes.

Watrobska Natalia, Gough Rachel, Hallowell Gayle et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Preliminary study to evaluate the use of fast abdominal ultrasonography of horses with colic in first opinion ambulatory practice

Samantha Corrie, Kristina Chapman, Imogen Schofield et al. (2024) — Equine Veterinary Education

Cohort Study

Incidence and risk factors for complications associated with equine general anaesthesia for elective magnetic resonance imaging.

Morgan Jessica M, Aceto Helen, Manzi Timothy et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Use of multiple admission variables better predicts intestinal strangulation in horses with colic than peritoneal or the ratio of peritoneal:blood l-lactate concentration.

Long Alicia E, Southwood Louise L, Morris Tate B et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Preliminary Functional Analysis of the Gut Microbiome in Colic Horses.

Thomson Pamela, Garrido Daniel, Santib&#xe1;&#xf1;ez Rodrigo et al. (2024) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Arterial Blood Gas, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Values as Diagnostic and Prognostic Indicators in Equine Colic.

Viterbo Luisa, Hughes Jodie, Milner Peter I et al. (2023) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Comparison of transrectal and transabdominal transducers for use in fast localized abdominal sonography of horses presenting with colic.

Haardt Hanna, Romero Alfredo E, Boysen S&#xf8;ren R et al. (2023) — Frontiers in veterinary science

Cohort Study

Long-term outcome after colic surgery: retrospective study of 106 horses in the USA (2014-2021).

Matthews Lisbeth B, Sanz Macarena, Sellon Debra C (2023) — Frontiers in veterinary science

Cohort Study

Prevalence of and risk factors associated with Salmonella shedding among equids presented to a veterinary teaching hospital for colic (2013-2018).

Kilcoyne Isabelle, Magdesian K Gary, Guerra Margherita et al. (2023) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Short-Term Survival and Postoperative Complications Rates in Horses Undergoing Colic Surgery: A Multicentre Study.

Spadari Alessandro, Gialletti Rodolfo, Gandini Marco et al. (2023) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Effect of Nasogastric Tube Placement, Manipulation, and Fluid Administration on Transcutaneous Ultrasound Visualization and Assessment of Stomach Position in Healthy Unfed and Fed Horses.

Epstein Kira Lyn, Hall Mark David (2022) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Predictive Models for Equine Emergency Exploratory Laparotomy in Spain: Pre-, Intra-, and Post-Operative-Mortality-Associated Factors.

Iglesias-Garc&#xed;a Manuel, Rodr&#xed;guez Hurtado Isabel, Ortiz-D&#xed;ez Gustavo et al. (2022) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Diagnostic utility and validity of 1,2-o-dilauryl-rac-glycero-3-glutaric acid-(6'-methylresorufin) ester (DGGR) lipase activity in horses with colic.

Lanz S, Howard J, Gerber V et al. (2022) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Cohort Study

Renal Resistive Index as A Potential Indicator of Acute Kidney Injury in Horses.

Siwinska Natalia, Zak Agnieszka, Slowikowska Malwina et al. (2021) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Cohort Study

Comparison of Mesh and Barbed Suture for Laparoscopic Nephrosplenic Space Ablation in Horses.

Gialletti Rodolfo, Nannarone Sara, Gandini Marco et al. (2021) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Evaluation of Plasmatic Procalcitonin in Healthy, and in Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS) Negative or Positive Colic Horses.

Nocera Irene, Bonelli Francesca, Vitale Valentina et al. (2021) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Lack of Association Between Barometric Pressure and Incidence of Colic in Equine Academic Ambulatory Practice.

Cianci Justine, Boyle Ashley G, Stefanovski Darko et al. (2021) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Cohort Study

Development of a Colic Scoring System to Predict Outcome in Horses.

Farrell Alanna, Kersh Kevin, Liepman Rachel et al. (2021) — Frontiers in veterinary science

Cohort Study

Changes in the faecal bacterial microbiota during hospitalisation of horses with colic and the effect of different causes of colic.

Stewart Holly L, Pitta Dipti, Indugu Nagaraju et al. (2021) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Prospective Feasibility and Revalidation of the Equine Acute Abdominal Pain Scale (EAAPS) in Clinical Cases of Colic in Horses.

Maskato Yamit, Dugdale Alexandra H A, Singer Ellen R et al. (2020) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Prevalence of Electrolyte Disturbances and Perianesthetic Death Risk Factors in 120 Horses Undergoing Colic Surgery.

Adami Chiara, Westwood-Hearn Holly, Bolt David M et al. (2020) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Cohort Study

Can Endocrine Dysfunction Be Reliably Tested in Aged Horses That Are Experiencing Pain?

Gehlen Heidrun, Jaburg Nina, Merle Roswitha et al. (2020) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Evaluation of Stress Response under a Standard Euthanasia Protocol in Horses Using Analysis of Heart Rate Variability.

Gehlen Heidrun, Loschelder Johanna, Merle Roswitha et al. (2020) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Association Between Disease Severity, Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and Serum Cortisol Concentrations in Horses with Acute Abdominal Pain.

Gehlen Heidrun, Faust Maria-Dorothee, Grzeskowiak Remigiusz M et al. (2020) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Comparative Analysis of Intestinal Helminth Infections in Colic and Non-Colic Control Equine Patients.

Gehlen Heidrun, Wulke Nadine, Ertelt Antonia et al. (2020) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Colic in the British military working horse population: a retrospective analysis.

Tannahill Victoria J, Cardwell Jacqueline M, Witte Tom H (2019) — The Veterinary record

Cohort Study

Preliminary results on the association with feeding and recovery length in equine colic patients after laparotomy.

Valle Emanuela, Giusto Gessica, Penazzi Livio et al. (2019) — Journal of animal physiology and animal nutrition

Cohort Study

Health and Body Conditions of Riding School Horses Housed in Groups or Kept in Conventional Tie-Stall/Box Housing.

Yngvesson Jenny, Rey Torres Juan Carlos, Lindholm Jasmine et al. (2019) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Cohort Study

Proportion of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug prescription in equine practice.

Duz M, Marshall J F, Parkin T D (2019) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Differences in the equine faecal microbiota between horses presenting to a tertiary referral hospital for colic compared with an elective surgical procedure.

Stewart H L, Southwood L L, Indugu N et al. (2019) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Predictive value of plasma and peritoneal creatine kinase in horses with strangulating intestinal lesions.

Kilcoyne Isabelle, Nieto Jorge E, Dechant Julie E (2019) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Owner-Reported Clinical Signs and Management-Related Factors in Horses Radiographed for Intestinal Sand Accumulation.

Niinist&#xf6; Kati E, M&#xe4;&#xe4;tt&#xe4; Meri A, Ruohoniemi Mirja O et al. (2019) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Cohort Study

The Effect of Core Abdominal Muscle Rehabilitation Exercises on Return to Training and Performance in Horses After Colic Surgery.

Holcombe Susan J, Shearer Tara R, Valberg Stephanie J (2019) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Cohort Study

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli and Acinetobacter baumannii among horses entering a veterinary teaching hospital: The contemporary "Trojan Horse".

Walther Birgit, Klein Katja-Sophia, Barton Ann-Kristin et al. (2018) — PloS one

Cohort Study

Clinical findings and management of 153 horses with large colon sand accumulations.

Kilcoyne Isabelle, Dechant Julie E, Spier Sharon J et al. (2017) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Factors associated with survival of horses following relaparotomy.

Findley J A, Salem S, Burgess R et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Assessment of horse owners' ability to recognise equine laminitis: A cross-sectional study of 93 veterinary diagnosed cases in Great Britain.

Pollard D, Wylie C E, Verheyen K L P et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Colic in a working horse population in Egypt: Prevalence and risk factors.

Salem S E, Scantlebury C E, Ezzat E et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Are horse age and incision length associated with surgical site infection following equine colic surgery?

Darnaud S J M, Southwood L L, Aceto H W et al. (2016) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Cohort Study

Laparoscopic Closure of the Nephrosplenic Space in Horses with Nephrosplenic Colonic Entrapment: Factors Associated with Survival and Colic Recurrence.

Nelson Brad B, Ruple-Czerniak Audrey A, Hendrickson Dean A et al. (2016) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Evaluation of 3 handheld portable analyzers for measurement of L-lactate concentrations in blood and peritoneal fluid of horses with colic.

Nieto Jorge E, Dechant Julie E, le Jeune Sarah S et al. (2015) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Serum amyloid A, haptoglobin, and ferritin in horses with colic: Association with common clinicopathological variables and short-term outcome.

Dondi Francesco, Lukacs Robert M, Gentilini Fabio et al. (2015) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Cohort Study

Short-term complications after colic surgery in geriatric versus mature non-geriatric horses.

Gazzerro Deanna M, Southwood Louise L, Lindborg Sue (2015) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Duration of disease influences survival to discharge of Thoroughbred mares with surgically treated large colon volvulus.

Hackett E S, Embertson R M, Hopper S A et al. (2015) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Long-term survival in horses with strangulating obstruction of the small intestine managed without resection.

Freeman D E, Schaeffer D J, Cleary O B (2014) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Serum cortisol concentrations in horses with colic.

Mair T S, Sherlock C E, Boden L A (2014) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Cohort Study

Idiopathic focal eosinophilic enteritis (IFEE), an emerging cause of abdominal pain in horses: the effect of age, time and geographical location on risk.

Archer Debra C, Costain Deborah A, Sherlock Chris (2014) — PloS one

Cohort Study

Prospective survey of veterinary practitioners' primary assessment of equine colic: clinical features, diagnoses, and treatment of 120 cases of large colon impaction.

Jennings Kyra, Curtis Laila, Burford John et al. (2014) — BMC veterinary research

Cohort Study

Prevalence of and risk factors for colic in horses that display crib-biting behaviour.

Escalona Ebony E, Okell Claire N, Archer Debra C (2014) — BMC veterinary research

Cohort Study

Medical management of sand enteropathy in 62 horses.

Hart K A, Linnenkohl W, Mayer J R et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Effect of a stent bandage on the likelihood of incisional infection following exploratory coeliotomy for colic in horses: a comparative retrospective study.

Tnibar A, Grubbe Lin K, Thur&#xf8;e Nielsen K et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Clinical and clinicopathological factors associated with survival in 44 horses with equine neorickettsiosis (Potomac horse Fever).

Bertin F R, Reising A, Slovis N M et al. (2013) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Blood lactate concentrations in ponies and miniature horses with gastrointestinal disease.

Dunkel B, Kapff J E, Naylor R J et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Sensitivity and specificity of blood leukocyte counts as an indicator of mortality in horses after colic surgery.

Salciccia A, Sandersen C, Grulke S et al. (2013) — The Veterinary record

Cohort Study

In equine grass sickness, serum amyloid A and fibrinogen are elevated, and can aid differential diagnosis from non-inflammatory causes of colic.

Copas V E N, Durham A E, Stratford C H et al. (2013) — The Veterinary record

Cohort Study

Return to use and performance following exploratory celiotomy for colic in horses: 195 cases (2003-2010).

Davis W, Fogle C A, Gerard M P et al. (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Plasma endotoxin in horses presented to an equine referral hospital: correlation to selected clinical parameters and outcomes.

Senior J M, Proudman C J, Leuwer M et al. (2011) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Peritoneal and plasma D-lactate concentrations in horses with colic.

Yamout Sawsan Z, Nieto Jorge E, Beldomenico Pablo M et al. (2011) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Prevalence of Clostridium perfringens in faeces and ileal contents from grass sickness affected horses: comparisons with 3 control populations.

Waggett B E, McGorum B C, Wernery U et al. (2010) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Colic in geriatric compared to mature nongeriatric horses. Part 2: Treatment, diagnosis and short-term survival.

Southwood L L, Gassert T, Lindborg S (2010) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Colic in geriatric compared to mature nongeriatric horses. Part 1: Retrospective review of clinical and laboratory data.

Southwood L L, Gassert T, Lindborg S (2010) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Initial investigation of mortality rates and prognostic indicators in horses with colic in Israel: a retrospective study.

Sutton G A, Ertzman-Ginsburg R, Steinman A et al. (2009) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Effects of blood contamination on peritoneal D-dimer concentration in horses with colic.

Delgado M A, Monreal L, Armengou L et al. (2009) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Effect of lipopolysaccharide infusion on gene expression of inflammatory cytokines in normal horses in vivo.

Nieto J E, MacDonald M H, Braim A E Poulin et al. (2009) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Peritoneal D-dimer concentration for assessing peritoneal fibrinolytic activity in horses with colic.

Delgado M A, Monreal L, Armengou L et al. (2009) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Association between hyperglycemia and survival in 228 horses with acute gastrointestinal disease.

Hassel D M, Hill A E, Rorabeck R A (2009) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Clinical dental examinations of 357 donkeys in the UK. Part 2: epidemiological studies on the potential relationships between different dental disorders, and between dental disease and systemic disorders.

du Toit N, Burden F A, Dixon P M (2009) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Demographics and costs of colic in Swedish horses.

Egenvall A, Penell J, Bonnett B N et al. (2008) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Risk factors for epiploic foramen entrapment colic in a UK horse population: a prospective case-control study.

Archer D C, Pinchbeck G L, French N P et al. (2008) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Post mortem survey of dental disorders in 349 donkeys from an aged population (2005-2006). Part 2: epidemiological studies.

Du Toit N, Gallagher J, Burden F A et al. (2008) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Determination of lactate concentrations in blood plasma and peritoneal fluid in horses with colic by an Accusport analyzer.

Delesalle Cath&#xe9;rine, Dewulf Jeroen, Lefebvre Romain A et al. (2007) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Cohort Study

Risk factors for development of acute laminitis in horses during hospitalization: 73 cases (1997-2004).

Parsons, Orsini, Krafty et al. (2007) — Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

Cohort Study

Differential survival in horses requiring end-to-end jejunojejunal anastomosis compared to those requiring side-to-side jejunocaecal anastomosis.

Proudman C J, Edwards G B, Barnes J (2007) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Plasma lactate as a predictor of colonic viability and survival after 360 degrees volvulus of the ascending colon in horses.

Johnston Kimberly, Holcombe Susan J, Hauptman Joe G (2007) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Cohort Study

Pre-operative and anaesthesia-related risk factors for mortality in equine colic cases.

Proudman C J, Dugdale A H A, Senior J M et al. (2006) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Cohort Study

Survival and complication rates in 300 horses undergoing surgical treatment of colic. Part 4: Early (acute) relaparotomy.

Mair T S, Smith L J (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Short-term survival after surgery for epiploic foramen entrapment compared with other strangulating diseases of the small intestine in horses.

Freeman D E, Schaeffer D J (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Survival and complication rates in 300 horses undergoing surgical treatment of colic. Part 2: Short-term complications.

Mair T S, Smith L J (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Use of web-based data collection to evaluate analgesic administration and the decision for surgery in horses with colic.

White N A, Elward A, Moga K S et al. (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Specific causes of morbidity among Swedish horses insured for veterinary care between 1997 and 2000.

Penell J C, Egenvall A, Bonnett B N et al. (2005) — The Veterinary record

Cohort Study

Evaluation of peritoneal fluid lactate as a marker of intestinal ischaemia in equine colic.

Latson K M, Nieto J E, Beldomenico P M et al. (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Survival and complication rates in 300 horses undergoing surgical treatment of colic. Part 1: Short-term survival following a single laparotomy.

Mair T S, Smith L J (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Meal size and starch content affect gastric emptying in horses.

M&#xe9;tayer N, Lh&#xf4;te M, Bahr A et al. (2004) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Spectrophotometric assessment of peritoneal fluid haemoglobin in colic horses: an aid to selecting medical vs. surgical treatment.

Weimann C D, Thoefner M B, Jensen A L (2002) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Factors associated with development of ileal impaction in horses with surgical colic: 78 cases (1986-2000).

Little D, Blikslager A T (2002) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Long-term survival of equine surgical colic cases. Part 2: modelling postoperative survival.

Proudman C J, Smith J E, Edwards G B et al. (2002) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Heparinised blood ionised calcium concentrations in horses with colic or diarrhoea compared to normal subjects.

van der Kolk J H, Nachreiner R F, Refsal K R et al. (2002) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

A cross-sectional study of colic in horses on thoroughbred training premises in the British Isles in 1997.

Hillyer M H, Taylor F G, French N P (2001) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

Postmortem findings of gastric ulcers in Swedish horses older than age one year: a retrospective study of 3715 horses (1924-1996).

Sandin A, Skidell J, H&#xe4;ggstr&#xf6;m J et al. (2000) — Equine veterinary journal

Cohort Study

First report of nodular hyperplasia in the spleen of a horse

Emi Sasaki, Lauren Guarneri, C. F. Mitchell et al. (2026) — Veterinary Record Case Reports

Case Report

Alterations in the Peritoneal Fluid Proteome of Horses with Colic Attributed to Ischemic and Non-Ischemic Intestinal Disease

R. Bishop, Justine Arrington, Pamela A Wilkins et al. (2025) — Animals : an Open Access Journal from MDPI

Case Report

Cost of referral treatment for colic in the United Kingdom-What has changed in the last 5&#x2009;years?

Wilson F E, Mair T S, Freeman S L (2025) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF COLIC IN HORSES

Zulkyya Abilova, Zoya Mikniene, Madina Khassanova et al. (2025) — 3i intellect idea innovation - интеллект идея инновация

Case Report

Strangulation of the caecum by a pedunculated lipoma in a Rocky Mountain Horse gelding

G. Elane, Todd Holbrook, Marley E. Iredale et al. (2024) — Equine Veterinary Education

Case Report

Successful management of ventricular bigeminy using lidocaine in a horse anaesthetised for emergency laparotomy

Dupont Julien, Caudron Isabelle, Loublier Clémence et al. (2024) — Veterinary Record Case Reports

Case Report

Ovarian Fibrothecoma in a Mare-Case Report.

Tamulionyt&#x117;-Sk&#x117;r&#x117; Raimonda, Juod&#x17e;iukynien&#x117; Nomeda, Gruodyt&#x117; Renata et al. (2024) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Case Report

Small Colon Faecalith with Large Colon Displacement in Ten Cases (2015-2023): A Detailed Case Description and Literature Review.

Scilimati Nicola, Cerullo Anna, Nannarone Sara et al. (2024) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Case Report

Clinical findings, surgical techniques, prognostic factors for short-term survival and long-term outcome in horses with acquired inguinal hernias: Ninety-eight cases (2005-2020).

Fran&#xe7;ois Is&#xe9;, Lepage Olivier M, Schramme Michael C et al. (2024) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Full-thickness endotracheal tube defect resulting in an anaesthetic circuit leak.

Miller Lucy, Lord Samuel (2023) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Lymphomatosis as a Cause of Abdominal Pain and Distension in Two Adult Horses.

Perry Laura R, Butler Amanda J, John Emily et al. (2023) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Case Report

Resolution of sustained ventricular tachycardia in a horse presenting with colic with magnesium sulfate

Pratt Stefanie L., Bowen Mark, Redpath Adam (2023) — Equine Veterinary Education

Case Report

Outcome following emergency laparotomy in 33 UK donkeys: A retrospective multicentre study.

Merridale-Punter Mathilde S, Prutton Jamie S W, Stefanovski Darko et al. (2023) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Right dorsal colitis in horses: A multicenter retrospective study of 35 cases.

Flood Jordan, Byrne David, Bauquier Jennifer et al. (2023) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Case Report

Standing flank laparotomy for colic: 37 cases.

Lopes Marco A F, Hardy Joanne, Farnsworth Kelly et al. (2022) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Retrospective Analysis of Cause-of-Death at an Equine Retirement Center in the Netherlands Over an Eight-Year Period.

van Proosdij Rick, Frietman Sjoerd (2022) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Case Report

Transcutaneous Detection of Intramural Microchips for Tracking the Migration of the Equine Large Colon: A Pilot Study.

Steward Sara Kt, McKee Hannah M, Watson Allison M et al. (2022) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Case Report

Clinical features and treatment response to differentiate idiopathic peritonitis from non-strangulating intestinal infarction of the pelvic flexure associated with Strongylus vulgaris infection in the horse.

Hedberg-Alm Ylva, Tyd&#xe9;n Eva, Tamminen Lena-Mari et al. (2022) — BMC veterinary research

Case Report

Successful Surgical and Medical Management of a Pararectal Abscess in a Horse.

Ortolani Flaminia, Nannarone Sara, Scilimati Nicola et al. (2021) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Case Report

Removal of a fragmented nasogastric tube from the transverse colon of a horse undergoing exploratory celiotomy for colic

Guerra M., Kilcoyne I. (2021) — Equine Veterinary Education

Case Report

Slater Rachael, Frau Alessandra, Hodgkinson Jane et al. (2021) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Case Report

Clinical and diagnostic findings, treatment, and short- and long-term survival in horses with peritonitis: 72 cases (2007-2017).

Arndt Stefanie, Kilcoyne Isabelle, Vaughan Betsy et al. (2021) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Uterine Inertia due to Severe Selenium Deficiency in a Parturient Mare.

Busse Nicolas I, Uberti Benjamin (2020) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Case Report

Myenteric networks of interstitial cells of Cajal are reduced in horses with inflammatory bowel disease.

Fintl C, Lindberg R, McL Press C (2020) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Primary Hyperparathyroidism Associated With Atypical Headshaking Behavior in a Warmblood Gelding.

Schwarz Bianca, Klang Andrea, Schwendenwein Ilse (2020) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Case Report

Aortopulmonary fistula in a Warmblood mare associated with an aortic aneurysm and supravalvular aortic stenosis.

Saey Veronique, Decloedt Annelies, Van Poucke Mario et al. (2020) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Case Report

Assessment of costs and insurance policies for referral treatment of equine colic

I. Barker, S. Freeman (2019) — The Veterinary Record

Case Report

Standing Hand-Assisted Laparoscopic Diagnosis and Treatment of a Rare Case of Uterine Adenocarcinoma in an 18-Year-Old Mare.

Qu&#xe9;r&#xe9; Emilie, Bourzac C&#xe9;line, Farfan Ma&#xeb;lle et al. (2019) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Case Report

Health and welfare problems of pack donkeys and cart horses in and around Holeta town, Walmara district, Central Ethiopia

Chala Chaburte, Bojia Endabu, Feleke Getahun et al. (2019) — Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health

Case Report

Changes in saliva analytes in equine acute abdominal disease: a sialochemistry approach.

Contreras-Aguilar Mar&#xed;a Dolores, Escribano Dami&#xe1;n, Mart&#xed;nez-Subiela Silvia et al. (2019) — BMC veterinary research

Case Report

Surgical treatment of epiploic foramen entrapment in 142 horses (2008-2016).

van Bergen Thomas, Haspeslagh Maarten, Wiemer Peter et al. (2019) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Clinical management of gastroduodenitis and equine gastric ulcer syndrome grade IV of unknown origin in an Arabian mare

S. Alonso-Sousa, M. D. Rijck, M. Lores et al. (2019) — Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift

Case Report

Clinical features, anaesthetic management and perioperative complications seen in three horses with pheochromocytoma

Daisy Norgate, A. Foster, B. Dunkel et al. (2019) — Veterinary Record Case Reports

Case Report

Nonstrangulating intestinal infarctions associated with Strongylus vulgaris: Clinical presentation and treatment outcomes of 30 horses (2008-2016).

Pihl T H, Nielsen M K, Olsen S N et al. (2018) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Duodenojejunal mesenteric rents: Survival and complications after surgical correction in 38 broodmares (2006-2014).

Lawless Shauna P, Werner Laura A, Baker W True et al. (2017) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Clinical nutrition counselling service in the veterinary hospital: retrospective analysis of equine patients and nutritional considerations.

Vergnano D, Bergero D, Valle E (2017) — Journal of animal physiology and animal nutrition

Case Report

Nonstrangulating intestinal infarction associated with Strongylus vulgaris in referred Danish equine cases.

Nielsen M K, Jacobsen S, Olsen S N et al. (2016) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Laparoscopic Evaluation of the Epiploic Foramen after Celiotomy for Epiploic Foramen Entrapment in the Horse.

van Bergen Thomas, Wiemer Peter, Schauvliege Stijn et al. (2016) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Prosthetic Mesh for Obliteration of the Nephrosplenic Space in Horses: 26 Clinical Cases.

Burke Megan J, Parente Eric J (2016) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Development of a new laparoscopic Foramen Epiploicum Mesh Closure (FEMC) technique in 6 horses.

van Bergen T, Wiemer P, Bosseler L et al. (2016) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

What's New in Old Horses? Postmortem Diagnoses in Mature and Aged Equids.

Miller M A, Moore G E, Bertin F R et al. (2016) — Veterinary pathology

Case Report

Identification, management and outcome of postoperative hemoperitoneum in 23 horses after emergency exploratory celiotomy for gastrointestinal disease.

Gray Sarah N, Dechant Julie E, LeJeune Sarah S et al. (2015) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Clinical Research Abstracts of the British Equine Veterinary Association Congress 2015.

Bardell D A, Archer D C, Milner P I (2015) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Surgical correction of nephrosplenic entrapment of the large colon in 3 horses via standing left flank laparotomy.

Krueger Clarisa R, Klohnen Andreas (2015) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Suspected acorn toxicity in nine horses.

Smith S, Naylor R J, Knowles E J et al. (2015) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Thoracoscopic diaphragmatic hernia repair in a warmblood mare.

R&#xf6;cken Michael, Mosel Gesine, Barske Katharine et al. (2013) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Postoperative Clostridium difficile infection with PCR ribotype 078 strain identified at necropsy in five Thoroughbred racehorses.

Niwa H, Kato H, Hobo S et al. (2013) — The Veterinary record

Case Report

Colic in competing endurance horses presenting to referral centres: 36 cases.

Fielding C L, Dechant J E (2012) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Attempted medical management of suspected ascending colon displacement in horses.

McGovern Kate F, Bladon Bruce M, Fraser Barny S L et al. (2012) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Putative intestinal hyperammonaemia in horses: 36 cases.

Dunkel B, Chaney K P, Dallap-Schaer B L et al. (2011) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Resection and anastomosis of the descending colon in 43 horses.

Prange Timo, Holcombe Susan J, Brown Jennifer A et al. (2010) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Outcome and long-term follow-up of 20 horses undergoing surgery for caecal impaction: a retrospective study (2000-2008).

Smith L C R, Payne R J, Boys Smith S J et al. (2010) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Acquired jejunal pseudodiverticula in a yearling Arabian filly.

Southwood Louise L, Cohen Jennifer, Busschers Evita et al. (2010) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Postoperative complications and survival after enterolith removal from the ascending or descending colon in horses.

Pierce Rebecca L, Fischer Andrew T, Rohrbach Barton W et al. (2010) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Gastric and small intestinal ileus as a cause of acute colic in the post parturient mare.

Hillyer M H, Smith M R W, Milligan P J P (2008) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Determination of the source of increased serotonin (5-HT) concentrations in blood and peritoneal fluid of colic horses with compromised bowel.

Delesalle C, van de Walle G R, Nolten C et al. (2008) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Myonecrosis in three horses with colic: evidence for endotoxic injury.

Valentine B A, L&#xf6;hr C V (2007) — The Veterinary record

Case Report

Are feeding practices associated with duodenitis-proximal jejunitis?

Cohen N D, Toby E, Roussel A J et al. (2006) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Intestinal neoplasia in horses.

Taylor S D, Pusterla N, Vaughan B et al. (2006) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Case Report

Red maple (Acer rubrum) leaf toxicosis in horses: a retrospective study of 32 cases.

Alward Ashley, Corriher Candice A, Barton Michelle H et al. (2006) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Case Report

Obstruction of equine small intestine associated with focal idiopathic eosinophilic enteritis: an emerging disease?

Archer Debra C, Barrie Edwards G, Kelly Donald F et al. (2006) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Case Report

Laparoscopic closure of the nephrosplenic space for prevention of recurrent nephrosplenic entrapment of the ascending colon.

Farstvedt Ellis, Hendrickson Dean (2005) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Serum hepatitis associated with commercial plasma transfusion in horses.

Aleman Monica, Nieto Jorge E, Carr Elizabeth A et al. (2005) — Journal of veterinary internal medicine

Case Report

Thoracoscopic-assisted diaphragmatic hernia repair using a thoracic rib resection.

Malone E D, Farnsworth K, Lennox T et al. (2001) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Case Report

Equine proliferative enteropathy: a cause of weight loss, colic, diarrhoea and hypoproteinaemia in foals on three breeding farms in Canada.

Lavoie J P, Drolet R, Parsons D et al. (2000) — Equine veterinary journal

Case Report

Cottone Ashley, Seiter Keely, Thomas Brinley et al. (2026) — Frontiers in veterinary science

Expert Opinion

Colic Surgery in the Horse

Freeman David E. (2025)

Expert Opinion

Real-time ancillary diagnostics for intraoperative assessment of intestinal viability in horses-looking for answers across species.

Verhaar Nicole, Geburek Florian (2025) — Veterinary surgery : VS

Expert Opinion

Equine veterinarians' care priorities regarding vaccination, colic, lameness and pre-purchase scenarios.

Elte, Wolframm, Vernooij et al. (2025) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Factors of Willingness to Pay for Equine Veterinary Services

Olivia Gibson, Shuoli Zhao, C. J. Stowe (2025) — Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics

Expert Opinion

Descriptive analysis of the use of and preferences for equine veterinary services

O. L. Gibson, E. Adam, C. J. Stowe (2025) — Equine Veterinary Education

Expert Opinion

Equine colic: A comprehensive overview of the sonographic evaluation, diagnostic criteria, and management of different categories

M. Tharwat, F. Al-Sobayil (2025) — Open Veterinary Journal

Expert Opinion

A survey of welfare problems associated with transporting horses by road in Germany (2022-2024).

May Anna, Riley Christopher B, Scharre Annabel et al. (2025) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Expert Opinion

Return of showjumping horses to sporting activity after colic surgery.

Giusto Gessica, Gandini Marco (2025) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Anaesthesia for colic surgery in horses

Loomes Kate (2024) — UK-Vet Equine

Expert Opinion

Use of human behaviour change models to investigate horse owner intention to adopt emergency colic recommendations.

Lightfoot Katie L, Frost Ellie, Burford John H et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Musculoskeletal Injury and Illness Patterns in British Eventing Horses: A Descriptive Study.

Tranquille Carolyne A, Chojnacka Kate, Murray Rachel C (2024) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Expert Opinion

UK horse owners and veterinary practitioners' experiences of decision-making for critical cases of colic.

Burrell Katie L, Burford John H, England Gary C W et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Automatic early detection of induced colic in horses using accelerometer devices.

Eerdekens Anniek, Papas Marion, Damiaans Bert et al. (2024) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

The Fibre Requirements of Horses and the Consequences and Causes of Failure to Meet Them.

Ermers Colette, McGilchrist Nerida, Fenner Kate et al. (2023) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Expert Opinion

Colic Surgery: Recent Updates.

Maia R Aitken (2023) — The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice

Expert Opinion

Abdominal Sonographic Evaluation: In the Field, at the Hospital, and After Surgery.

Cristobal Navas de Solis, M. Coleman (2023) — The Veterinary clinics of North America. Equine practice

Expert Opinion

Factors that influence owner consent for exploratory laparotomy in horses with colic in Australia and New Zealand.

Averay Kate, Wilkins Clara, de Kantzow Max et al. (2023) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Ultrasonographic Assessment of Small Intestinal Motility Following Hyoscine Butylbromide Administration in Horses: A Pilot Study.

Haugaard Simon Libak, McGovern Kate F, Tallon Rose et al. (2023) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Expert Opinion

Localisation of Cannabinoid and Cannabinoid-Related Receptors in the Horse Ileum.

Galiazzo Giorgia, Tagliavia Claudio, Giancola Fiorella et al. (2021) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Expert Opinion

Age-Dependent Intestinal Repair: Implications for Foals with Severe Colic.

Erwin Sara J, Blikslager Anthony T, Ziegler Amanda L (2021) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Expert Opinion

Incomplete Ileocecal Bypass for Ileal Pathology in Horses: 21 Cases (2012-2019).

Giusto Gessica, Cerullo Anna, Labate Federico et al. (2021) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Expert Opinion

Owners' Knowledge and Approaches to Colic in Working Equids in Honduras.

Wild Isabella, Freeman Sarah, Robles Daniela et al. (2021) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Expert Opinion

Sparing the gut: COX-2 inhibitors herald a new era for treatment of horses with surgical colic.

Ziegler A L, Blikslager A T (2020) — Equine veterinary education

Expert Opinion

Horse owners' knowledge, and opinions on recognising colic in the horse.

Bowden A, Burford J H, Brennan M L et al. (2020) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Colic Prevention to Avoid Colic Surgery: A Surgeon's Perspective.

Blikslager Anthony T (2019) — Journal of equine veterinary science

Expert Opinion

Clinical presentation, diagnostic findings, and outcome of adult horses with equine coronavirus infection at a veterinary teaching hospital: 33 cases (2012-2018).

Berryhill E H, Magdesian K G, Aleman M et al. (2019) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Expert Opinion

Colic surgery: keeping it affordable for horse owners

D. Archer (2019) — Veterinary Record

Expert Opinion

Enteric coronavirus infection in adult horses.

Pusterla N, Vin R, Leutenegger C M et al. (2018) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Expert Opinion

Fifty years of colic surgery.

Freeman D E (2018) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Objective pain assessment in horses (2014-2018).

van Loon J P A M, Van Dierendonck M C (2018) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Expert Opinion

Owner reported diseases of working equids in central Ethiopia.

Stringer A P, Christley R M, Bell C E et al. (2017) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

The importance of muscarinic receptors in domestic animal diseases and therapy: Current and future perspectives.

Abraham Getu (2016) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Expert Opinion

Equine coronavirus: An emerging enteric virus of adult horses.

Pusterla N, Vin R, Leutenegger C et al. (2016) — Equine veterinary education

Expert Opinion

The effect of temperature changes on in vitro slow wave activity in the equine ileum.

Fintl C, Hudson N P H, Handel I et al. (2016) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

A Survey on Transport Management Practices Associated with Injuries and Health Problems in Horses.

Padalino Barbara, Raidal Sharanne L, Hall Evelyn et al. (2016) — PloS one

Expert Opinion

Equine colic: a review of the equine hindgut and colic

Bland Stephanie D. (2016) — Veterinary Science Development

Expert Opinion

Anatomy of the vestibule of the omental bursa and epiploic foramen in the horse.

Freeman D E, Pearn A R (2015) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Clinical Research Abstracts of the British Equine Veterinary Association Congress 2015.

Kalamanova A, Stringer A P, Freeman S L et al. (2015) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Clinical Research Abstracts of the British Equine Veterinary Association Congress 2015.

Bowden A, Brennan M L, England G C W et al. (2015) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Could it be colic? Horse-owner decision making and practices in response to equine colic.

Scantlebury Claire E, Perkins Elizabeth, Pinchbeck Gina L et al. (2014) — BMC veterinary research

Expert Opinion

Pain control in horses: what do we really know?

Sanchez L C, Robertson S A (2014) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Equine proliferative enteropathy--a review of recent developments.

Pusterla N, Gebhart C J (2013) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Preliminary safety and biological efficacy studies of ethyl pyruvate in normal mature horses.

Schroeder E L, Holcombe S J, Cook V L et al. (2011) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Pusterla N, Gebhart C (2009) — Equine veterinary education

Expert Opinion

Crib-biting in US horses: breed predispositions and owner perceptions of aetiology.

Albright J D, Mohammed H O, Heleski C R et al. (2009) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Do horses suffer from irritable bowel syndrome?

Hunter J O (2009) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

The creation of an international audit and database of equine colic surgery: survey of attitudes of surgeons.

Mair T S, White N A (2008) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Attenuation of ischaemic injury in the equine jejunum by administration of systemic lidocaine.

Cook V L, Jones Shults J, McDowell M et al. (2008) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Epidemiological clues to preventing colic.

Archer D C, Proudman C J (2006) — Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)

Expert Opinion

Effects of cyclooxygenase inhibitors flunixin and deracoxib on permeability of ischaemic-injured equine jejunum.

Tomlinson J E, Blikslager A T (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Comparative biochemical analyses of venous blood and peritoneal fluid from horses with colic using a portable analyser and an in-house analyser.

Saulez M N, Cebra C K, Dailey M (2005) — The Veterinary record

Expert Opinion

Detection of differentially regulated genes in ischaemic equine intestinal mucosa.

Tschetter J R, Blikslager A T, Little D et al. (2005) — Equine veterinary journal

Expert Opinion

Dexmedetomidine Has Differential Effects on the Contractility of Equine Jejunal Smooth Muscle Layers In Vitro.

Verhaar Nicole, Hoppe Susanne, Grages Anna Marei et al. (2023) — Animals : an open access journal from MDPI

Thesis

Foramen epiploicum mesh closure (FEMC) through a ventral midline laparotomy.

van Bergen T, R&#xf6;tting A, Wiemer P et al. (2018) — Equine veterinary journal

Thesis